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Note | Leibniz’s Monadology

To Solve Descartes’ Problem

To solve the contradiction of Descartes’ dualism, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz illustrated innumerable, undivided and minimum substances monad (from French monade).

It’s opposite direction of investigation to the monism of Baruch Spinoza. Spinoza’s substance as the God is independent, eternal and finite, so it is self-caused and is the one covers everything. But to explain diversity of the world, it’s more natural that there are innumerable monad than there’s the one substance.

Monadology

Monad owns unlimited connections and is unified by power. Monad exists by to reflect unlimited interconnections among monad and the entire universe. Monad is living mirror of the universe, is not an only a point of space. In stead of independent substance by Descartes or Spinoza, monad has independent motion. Monad is substance can move by itself. Atom of Democritus or Lucretius is minimal physical particle can be divided. Differ from atom, monad is immaterial, unphysical and undivided essence to construct things.

Monad is a sensual thing, so it causes voluntary motion or change. Monad is subject of motion, and its condition is developed and changed by an internal principle of itself.

Changing of monad is not related to and is not affected by other monads. So, Leibniz stated “Monads are windowless”. Monad is not being or existence, it’s the motion is consist of mind and things.

By their function of “expression”, monads realize the diversity of the world. Monads can’t be changed by each other. Monad reflects and expresses the whole universe, there’s no diversity and differences of meaning or content. But monads are varied by differences of a perspective reflects in the whole and in a degree of awakening.

References

Jean-François Revel, Histoire de la philosophie occidentale (Nil Éditions, 1994)

Luc Ferry & Claude Capelier, La plus belle histoire de la philosophie (Éditions Points, 2014)

Roger-Pol Droit, Une brève histoire de la philosophie (Flammarion, 2008)

Bertrand Russell, The History of Western Philosophy (Simon & Schuster, 1972)

Nigel Warburton, A Little History of Philosophy (Yale University Press, 2011)

Roger Scruton, A Short History of Modern Philosophy (Routledge, 2002)

Gen Kida, History of Anti-Philosophy (Kodansha Academic Library, 2000)

Seiji Takeda & Ken Nishi, The First Histoty of Philosophy: To Think Profoundly (Yuhikaku, 1998)

Shigeto Nuki, Illustrated & Standard History of Philosophy (Shinshokan, 2008)

Shigeto Nuki, Philosophy Map (Chikuma New Books, 2004)

Sumihiko Kumano, The History of Western Philosophy: From The Ancient to The Middle Ages (Iwanami New Books, 2006)

Sumihiko Kumano, The History of Western Philosophy: From The Modern Ages to The Present Day (Iwanami New Books, 2006)

Thierry Paquot & François Pépin, Dictionnaire Larousse de la Philosophie (Éditions Larousse, 2011)

Simon Blackburn, The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy (Second Edition Revised), (Oxford University Press, 2008)

Robert Audi, The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy (Second Edition), (Cambridge University Press, 1995)

Thomas Mautner, The Penguin Dictionary of Philosophy (Second Edition), (Penguin Books, 2005)

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Note | Spinoza’s Monism

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Note | Spinoza’s Monism

Problem of Descartes’ Dualism

On philosophy of Descartes, substance is divided in to two things, mind and body. Mind-body dualism is natural and comprehensible. But there’s a philosophical consequential problem. By Descartes’ dualism, connection between mind and body is unclear and uncertain.

So Baruch Spinoza and Gottfried Leibniz tried to solute the problem by monism.

Spinoza’s Monism

By Descartes, substance is independent thing. And there are two kinds of substance. But mind and body are interdependence things. Descartes’ dualism is a contradiction of definition.

Spinoza considered substance is one, the one is the God. Substance has independence is not affected by anything. So substance is not restricted by other things, and it’s infinite. Then it’s infinite, unlimited and eternal, so it must be the only one, it’s the God.

Substance is only one. For Spinoza, Descartes’ mind and body are one thing. Mind and body are different aspects of reflection of substance by different aspects of view.

References

Jean-François Revel, Histoire de la philosophie occidentale (Nil Éditions, 1994)

Luc Ferry & Claude Capelier, La plus belle histoire de la philosophie (Éditions Points, 2014)

Roger-Pol Droit, Une brève histoire de la philosophie (Flammarion, 2008)

Bertrand Russell, The History of Western Philosophy (Simon & Schuster, 1972)

Nigel Warburton, A Little History of Philosophy (Yale University Press, 2011)

Roger Scruton, A Short History of Modern Philosophy (Routledge, 2002)

Gen Kida, History of Anti-Philosophy (Kodansha Academic Library, 2000)

Seiji Takeda & Ken Nishi, The First Histoty of Philosophy: To Think Profoundly (Yuhikaku, 1998)

Shigeto Nuki, Illustrated & Standard History of Philosophy (Shinshokan, 2008)

Shigeto Nuki, Philosophy Map (Chikuma New Books, 2004)

Sumihiko Kumano, The History of Western Philosophy: From The Ancient to The Middle Ages (Iwanami New Books, 2006)

Sumihiko Kumano, The History of Western Philosophy: From The Modern Ages to The Present Day (Iwanami New Books, 2006)

Thierry Paquot & François Pépin, Dictionnaire Larousse de la Philosophie (Éditions Larousse, 2011)

Simon Blackburn, The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy (Second Edition Revised), (Oxford University Press, 2008)

Robert Audi, The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy (Second Edition), (Cambridge University Press, 1995)

Thomas Mautner, The Penguin Dictionary of Philosophy (Second Edition), (Penguin Books, 2005)

Related Posts and Pages

Note | Philosophy of René Descartes

Note | Leibniz’s Monadology

Note | Philosophy of Georg Hegel

Note | A Definition of Philosophy

Note | A Definition of Ethics

Timeline of Philosophy

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Note | Wittgenstein’s Language Game

What is Language Game

Language game (Sprachspiel) is the central theory or the kew concept of Ludwig Wittgenstein’s later philosophy.

The definition of language game is ”activities of people follow a rule” of which model is language and its activity, and it can apply all of human activities, expression and behaviours.

For philosophers of the Modern philosophy and the former philosophy of Wittgenstein, language is a tool reflects the fact. But the former philosophy of Wittgenstein turned the view point to language.

Metaphor of Chess

First, Wittgenstein think language as a metaphor of chess. Like chess meanings of words and sentences are relative, and they are regulated by several rules.

Same as chess, language is consist of an unity of various rules. A meaning of a word is a position in which a word occupies. To know a meaning of a word is to know the usage of a word.

And, Wittgenstein adapted language game to all of human acts and behaviours.

Language is Activity

Wittgenstein thought the essence of language is human activity. Wittgenstein grasped language as a dynamic use or act in an actual scene. Because, all statements and perceptions in activity are done by a purpose or a view point.

Our society is network of language game. Language game made us be capable of use language, is a thing sustain the world we live, also is realized by form of life (Lebensform).

Game Precedes Rules / Rules Has Not A Reason

On language, acts precede a grammar. We can play a language game naturally, despite we don’t know the whole rules and we only know fragments of rules.

Then, why do words have meanings ? And, how come words can indicate things ? Because, in language game, words are connected to meanings and things by rules.

But it can’t be guaranteed. It’s only enough to understand rules and to behave following rules. Also we can’t explain all of rules, need not to be aware it. So rules has no absolute reason or root. Rules is being composed in an activity of a language game.

Family Resemblance

Any language games aren’t completely different. Also all language games has not identical essences and contents. But tennis, table tennis and squash are different language games, but they are resemble. And politics, commerce, war, football and jazz performance are partly resemble. Language games forms a network by their resemblances. Wittgenstein named this characteristics of language game family resemblance.

Relativism / Intellectualism

There are many language games in the world. Each of them is a relative thing. But you need to choose one of them by your subjectivity. So, on language game, Intellectualism and relativism are compatible with each other.

Conclusion

From ancient times, philosophers investigated cause or motive on a society or of the world. But Wittgenstein’s language game is groundless fact and act have no cause and necessity. Wittgenstein criticized this bad habit of philosophers. Language game only realized in acts and is sustained by form of life. This view of Wittgenstein is acute rebuke to intellectualism or voluntarism of the Western philosophy. By the concept of family resemblance, essentialism from Plato is denied.

Language game is a theory of philosophy as anti-philosophy. It deconstructed intellectualism and humane subjectivity, the root of philosophy. And the concept of language game resembles Saussurean linguistics, also preceded post-structuralism and post-modernism. Language game opened up the possibility of pluralism, anti-essentialism and anti-intellectualism is valid in the contemporary world.

References

A. C. Grayling, Wittgenstein: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford University Press, 2001)

Daisaburo Hashizume, Language Game for Beginners (Kodansha, 2009)

Paul Strathern, Wittgenstein in 90 Minutes (Ivan R. Dee, 1996)

Ray Monk, How to Read Wittgenstein (W. W. Norton, 2005)

Hitoshi Imamura, 101 People of the Contemporary Thought (Shinshokan, 1999)

Shigeto Nuki, Illustrated & Standard History of Philosophy (Shinshokan, 2008)

Shigeto Nuki, Philosophy Map (Chikuma New Books, 2004)

Seiji Takeda & Ken Nishi, The First Histoty of Philosophy: To Think Profoundly (Yuhikaku, 1998)

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