Note | Structuralism

What is structuralism

Structuralism is a school of thought adopts a way of scientific method extracts social and human unconscious structure(s), is based on Saussurean linguistics or semiology. The concept of “structure” means a system composed of relations of things or elements. And structure is not only a set of plurality and unity, but also a whole can’t be separated and described as a system, relations and elements in a total relationship. There’s mutual effects among system, relations and elements. Structure obtains a characteristics through a process of changes. But exact concept of structure is various by authors. And structuralism has no proper manifesto and group.

This school and its movement swept over France and Europe in the 1960’s, still huge influence on humane studies and social science. The argument of structuralism led to be a criticism to rationalism, humanism and progressivism, Marxism and Sartre’s Existentialism. The viewpoint of structuralism still affects people in contemporary society.

A origin: Saussurean linguistic & semiology

A Swiss linguist, Ferdinand de Saussure create the general linguistic and semiology. These impact entirely changed the view point and the method of linguistic study.

Before de Sassure, linguists, especially comparative linguistics solely studied comparative and historical study of language. They compared and unraveled changes before and after of a language, differences among languages by phonology, syntax, lexicology and so on. And their ultimate aim is pursued the root and the entire history of the Indo-European language.

Also de Saussure is a great genius in comparative linguistics. But he felt he can’t grasp the truth of language and the true mechanism, mean and value of language forever by the study. So he was completely exhausted these endless study, and in a depressive state for a while. So he planned a study deals with general and universal system of language and human expression, as the general linguistic or semiology.

In “Course in General Linguistics” de Saussure pursued the general system of language, communication, and effects of meaning. This study brought about the school of structural linguistics. And he planned semiology, the general study of sign, precedes linguistics which got to be a major root of structuralism.

Levi-Strauss

Anthropologist, Claude Levi-Strauss applied linguistics of de Saussure and Roman Jakobson to analysis of structures of kinship or mythes in primitive societies, he proved a society composed by unconscious structures than subjective human will and decision. The rules in a structure of a society is an unconscious thing for the members of the society, so function of social structure has more important significance than subjective decision and intention of the world history.

Then Levi-Strauss showed a doubt for the idea of subjective decision by human of existentialism. He said human studies and social science should study the social structure that permits each men’s subjective decisions, the concept of a man as a subject must be resolved.

Roland Barthes

“Écrivain”, Roland Barthes rediscovered the Saussurean semiology, earnestly forwarded and applied it for analyses of literature, culture and the contemporary society. The aim of Barthes is solve the structure behind senses of which human, culture and nature form. Behind human expression and behaviour in a culture or society, there’s a certain invisible function or system.

In an essay “The Death of the Author” Barthes presented the concept of the death of the author, and criticize the author-centralism and the concept of “(grand) work” of classical literary criticism. By Barthes, an author is not the god or creator of the work, text should be read as a weaved fabric of various citations in a culture.

Louis Althusser

Philosopher, Louis Althusser re-read works of Karl Marx as a scientific epistemology or a structural relationalism analysis on economics and society.

Althusser thought, Marx’s theory must be structurally analysed, and the concepts such as “aliennation” and “reification” are eliminated by the method of epistemological break. He removed young Marx’s humanism and Hegel’s rationalism from Marx’s master-piece, The Capital.

Futhermore, Althusser made structural analysis the theory of Marx. He argued about “reciprocal effects between a superstructure and a basis”, “reproduction of relations of production”, and “ideological state apparatuses”. Then he proclaimed Marxism faces a crisis by becoming an ideological state apparatuses of the Communist Party.

Conclusion

Structuralism is a school or a method treat unconscious hidden system regulate thinking and acts of men, formed by relations of a relationship in a society or a culture.

I think structuralism is very important and still valid, and the thinking is still effective to analyse and think about a society, social movements, expressions and literature. And it’s an effective and potent way of thinking and a method of research, equal to phenomenology, existentialism, pragmatism and Wittgenstein’s language game, I think.

References

Akira Deguchi, Real Structuralism: Language, Power, Subject (NHK Publishing, 2013)

Graham Allen, Roland Barthes (Routledge, 2003)

Jonathan Culler, Roland Barthes (Oxford University Press, 2002)

Related Posts and Pages

Timeline of Philosophy

Philosophy / Philosophie

List of Best Piano Étude Books & Repertory for Beginners, Intermediate & Advanced Players in a Reasonable Order of Study

Piano Etude Books for Beginners

1 – Beyer: Elementary Method for the Piano, Op. 101

The most popular piano étude score book for all children and piano beginners. It’s instructive also to play fun.

Level 1/5

Beyer: Elementary Method for the Piano, Op. 101
(Alfred Masterwork Edition)

Beyer: Elementary Method for Piano Op. 101
(Edition Peters)

Finger Exercise – Hanon: The Virtuoso Pianist in 60 Exercises

A popular piano étude book for learning stable and equal touch and sync of both hands.

Level 1-2/5

Hanon
The Virtuoso Pianist In Sixty Exercises
For The Piano, Vol. 925. Complete
(Schirmer’s Library Of Musical Classics)

Hanon
The Virtuoso Pianist in 60 Exercises
(Alfred Masterwork Edition)

Mechanical and Accurate Play Practice – Czerny: 100 Progressive Studies without Octaves, Op. 139

A very popular piano étude book for beginners. It’s consist of very short and short songs to study accurate fingering, reasonable positioning and right playing in Classical Music, and mechanical and technical playing. Most piano beginners use together with “Beyer” and “Burmüller”.

Level 1.5 – 2/5

Czerny: 100 Progressive Studies without Octaves, Op. 139
(Alfred Masterwork Edition)

Czerny: 100 Progressive Studies without Octaves, Op. 139
(Schirmer Library of Classics)

Supplementally Text – Kabalevsky: – 24 Pieces for Children, Op. 39

Level 1 – 1.5/5

Kabalevsky: Easy Pieces
24 Pieces for Children, Op. 39 & 33 Easy Pieces, Op. 89
(Schirmer’s Library of Musical Classics)

Kabalevsky: 24 Pieces for Children, Opus 39
(Schirmer Performance Editions)

First Book of Musical Work – Mozart: Die Notenbücher der Geschwister Mozart für Klavier / The Music Books of Mozart and His Sister for Piano

Very easy and simple monophony music scores which Mozart wrote in his childhood.

Level 1 – 2/5

Mozart: The Young Mozart: Easy original pieces for piano
Written by Mozart at the age of six and eight years
(Schott Piano Classics)

Mozart: 14 of His Easiest Piano Pieces
(Alfred Masterwork Edition)

Mozart: An Introduction to His Keyboard Works
(Alfred Masterwork CD Edition)

Supplementally Text – Gurlitt: Album for the Young, Op. 140

Musically profound, technically easy piano pieces for Children.

Level 1.5 – 2/5

Gurlitt: Album for the Young, Op. 140
(Alfred Masterwork Edition)

Supplementally Text – Leopold Mozart: Notebook for Nannerl

A very easy the half of baroque and classical taste music scorebook for his children, Nannerl and Wolfgang lean music and piano.

Level 1 – 3/5

Notebook for Nannerl: Piano
(Schott Piano Classics)

2 – Burgmüller: 25 Progressive Pieces, Op. 100

Very popular piano étude score book for children finished “Beyer”. It’s compatible with melodious and technical.

Level 2/5

Burgmüller – 25 Progressive Pieces, Op. 100
Book & CD (Alfred Masterwork CD Edition)

Burgmüller – 25 Études Faciles Et Progressives Op. 100 for Piano
(Edition Peters)

Burgmuller – 25 Progressive Studies, Opus 100
Schirmer Performance Editions Book Only
(Schirmer Performance Editions-Hal Leonard Piano Library)

Mechanical and Accurate Play Practice – Czerny: 110 Easy and Progressive Exercises, Op. 453: Schirmer Library of Classics Volume 749 Piano Technique

More difficult to “Czerny: 100”, and “Burgmüller” learners use tougher with it.

Level 2 – 2.5/5

Czerny: 110 Easy and Progressive Exercises, Op. 453
(Schirmer Library of Classics)

Supplementally Text – Mel Bonis: 20 pièces pour les tout petits, Op. 103

The album includes 20 short charming and unique pieces for children and beginner piano players, to lean styles and gain expression.

Level 2/5

20 pièces pour les tout petits, Op. 103
on YouTube

20 pièces pour les tout petits, Op. 103
on Spotify

IMSLP

Supplementally Text – Gillock: Lyric Preludes in Romantic Style

A reputable melodious and lyric also technical piano étude book.

Level 2 – 2.5/5

Gillock: Lyric Preludes in Romantic Style
24 Short Piano Pieces in All Keys
(Alfred Music)

Supplementally Text – Gurlitt: Selected Works for Piano

Level 2/5

Gurlitt: Selected Works for Piano
(Kjos Music Company)

Supplementally Text – Kabalevsky: Pieces for Children, Op. 27

Level 2/5

Kabalevsky: Pieces for Children, Op. 27 and 39
(Schirmer Performance Editions)

Kabalevsky: Short Pieces for Piano
(Schirmer’s Library of Musical Classics)

Supplementally Text – Kabalevsky: Thirty Children’s Pieces Opus 27

Piano pieces with titles and are fun, for piano students, good for their expression and imagination.

Level 2 – 2.5/5

Kabalevsky: 24 Pieces for Children, Opus 39
(Schirmer Performance Editions)

3 – Sonatina Album: A Collection of Favorite Sonatinas, Rondos, and Other Pieces for the Piano

Very popular piano score book for piano beginners finished “Burgmüller”. It’s the book for preparation of authentic piano songs and to be an intermediate piano player.

Level 2.5 – 3.5/5

Sonatina Album: Schirmer Library of Classics Volume 51 Piano Solo
(Schirmer’s Library of Musical Classics)

Sonatina Album: Comb Bound Book & 2 CDs
(Alfred Masterwork CD Edition)

Sonatina Album for Piano
(Edition Peters)

Sonatina Album
Schirmer Performance Editions Book
(Hal Leonard Piano Library Schirmer Performance Editions)

Supplementally Text – Tchaikovsky: Album for the Young (24 Easy Pieces), Op. 39

Tchaikovsky wrote this pieces for children and his nephews. Romantic taste imaginative and unique étude songs with title, is good for expression and acquire styles. Also good for a concert repertory.

Level 3/5

Tchaikovsky: Album for the Young (24 Easy Pieces), Op. 39
(Schirmer Library of Classics)

Supplementally Text – Burgmüller: 18 Characteristic Studies, Op. 109

Level 3/5

4 – Sonata Album

A collection of the famous and royal road First Viennese School sonatas by Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven for intermediate and high lank piano learners.
(But, I think this book is not necessary for learning. You may find and play your favourite intermediate and upper-intermediate level piano pieces, for example Schubert, Schumann, Chopin, Grieg, Fauré, Satie and Granados, and complete sonata collections of Haydn and Mozart.)

Level 3.5 – 4/5

Sonata Album, Vol 1: Comb Bound Book
(Alfred Masterwork Edition)

Sonata Album, Vol 2: Comb Bound Book
(Alfred Masterwork Edition)

Modern Course for the Piano (Alternate Choice for Beginners)

John Thompson’s Modern Course for the Piano, First Grade (1 of 5)

Thompson’s Modern Course for the Piano, First Grade
(Willis Music)

Edna Mae Burnam’s Step by Step Piano Course, Book 1 (1 of 3)

Burnam’s Step by Step Piano Course, Book 1
(Willis Music)

John W. Schaum: Piano Course – A, The Red Book (1 of 2)

Schaum: Piano Course – A
(Alfred Music)

Introduction to Polyphony Music

Bach: 18 Short Preludes for Keyboard

Level 2/5

Bach: 18 Short Preludes
(Alfred Masterwork Edition)

Bach: Notenbüchlein für Anna Magdalena Bach / Notebook for Anna Magdalena Bach

Level 2 – 2.5/5

Bach: Selections from Anna Magdalena’s Notebook
(Alfred Masterwork Edition)

Anna Magdalena Bach Notebook: Urtext with Fingerings

Bach: Inventions & Sinfonias (2 & 3 Part Inventions): Comb Bound Book & CD

Level 3/5

Bach: Inventions & Sinfonias (2 & 3 Part Inventions)
(Alfred Masterwork CD Edition)

Inventions And Sinfonias
(Henle)

Concert Repertory for Children

Emil Breslaur: Die Leichtesten Klavierstücke, Op. 46

one of the easiest repertory for Children’s exhibition and concert, and it’s useful to gain musical expression, is suitable for leaners who studies No. 50 of “Beyer”.

Level 1/5

Die Leichtesten Klavierstücke, Op. 46
on YouTube

Die Leichtesten Klavierstücke, Op. 46
on Spotify

IMSLP

William Gillock: Elementary Level

A good concert repertory book contains easy but play to fun for children and beginners, also it’s a good introduction to various style music.

Level 1 – 1.5/5

Classic Piano Repertoire – William Gillock: Elementary Level
(Willis Music)

Gillock: Solo Repertoire for the Young Pianist, Book 1 (Early Elementary Level)

Very easy concert repertory for children in various tastes.

Level 1 /5

Gillock: Solo Repertoire for the Young Pianist, Book 1
(Willis Music)

Louis Streabbog: “Les étoiles d’or” and “La violette”

“Les étoiles d’or” and “La violette” is famous concert repertory for children. They are gentle waltz pieces and play to fun.

Level 1.5/5

Louis Streabbog: Les étoiles d’or et Morceaux de piano
on YouTube

Louis Streabbog: Les étoiles d’or et Morceaux de piano
on Spotify

Louis Köhler: Children’s Album, Op.210

A very good concert repertory book for children and their first performance.

Level 1 – 1.5/5

Louis Köhler: Children’s Album, Op.210
on YouTube

Louis Köhler: Children’s Album, Op.210
on Spotify

Köhler: Children’s Album, Op. 210
(Kalmus Edition)

Louis Köhler: Short School of Velocity, Op.242

More difficult than “Children’s Album”.

Level 1 – 1.5 – 2/5

Köhler: Short School of Velocity, Op. 242
(Alfred Masterwork Edition)

Cornelius Gurlitt: Der Erste Vortrag, Op. 210

Gurlitt’s some songbooks are very good and fun concert repertory for Children, equal to them of Köhler.

Level 1 – 1.5/5

Cornelius Gurlitt: Der Erste Vortrag
on YouTube

Cornelius Gurlitt: Der Erste Vortrag
on Spotify

IMSLP

Cornelius Gurlitt: 20 Leichte Lieliche Klavierstücke Op. 155

Level 1 – 1.5/5

Cornelius Gurlitt
20 Leichte Lieliche Klavierstücke Op. 155
on YouTube

Cornelius Gurlitt
20 Leichte Lieliche Klavierstücke Op. 155
on Spotify

Cornelius Gurlitt: Cornelius Gurlitt: Albumblätter für die Jugend, Op 101

Level 2/5

Cornelius Gurlitt
Cornelius Gurlitt: Albumblätter für die Jugend, Op 101
on YouTube

Cornelius Gurlitt
Cornelius Gurlitt: Albumblätter für die Jugend, Op 101
on Spotify

Oskar Merikanto: Lasten Maailmasta, Op. 31

“Lasten Maailmasta” (From the Children of the World) is a piano album book for children by the great composer of Finland.

Level 1 – 3/5

Oskar Merikanto: Lasten Maailmasta
on YouTube

Oskar Merikanto: Lasten Maailmasta
on Spotify

Gabriel Pierné: Album pour mes petits amis, Op. 14

A nostalgic and humorous album by a French late romantic composer.

Level 2.5/5

Gabriel Pierné: Album pour mes petits amis
on YouTube

Gabriel Pierné: Album pour mes petits amis
on Spotify

IMSLP

Charles Koechlin: Dix petites pièces faciles Op. 61c

An album of dreamy and poetic short pieces for children, by a French late romantic and impressionist composer.

Level 2.5/5

Koechlin: Dix petites pièces faciles
on YouTube

Koechlin: Dix petites pièces faciles
on Spotify

IMSLP

Etude Books for Intermediate Learners

Concone: Twenty-five Melodious Studies, Op. 24

Level 3/5

Concone: Twenty-five Melodious Studies
(Kalmus Edition)

Concone: Fifteen Studies in Style and Expression, Op. 25

Level 3/5

IMSLP

Moszkowski: 20 Short Studies, Op. 91

Level 3 – 3.5/5

Moszkowski: 20 Short Studies
(Alfred Masterwork Edition)

Moszkowski: 15 Virtuosic Etudes, Per Aspera, Op. 72

A reputed melodious and skilful piano etude to prepare romantic repertory, Chopin and Liszt. Also, this etude book itself is a fine musical work.

Level 3.5 – 4/5

Moszkowski: 15 Virtuosic Etudes, Per Aspera
(Alfred Masterwork Edition)

Moszkowski: 15 Virtuosic Etudes, Per Aspera
(Schirmer Library of Classics)

Cramer-Bülow: 60 Studies for Piano

Level 4/5

Cramer-Bülow: 60 Studies for Piano
(Edition Peters)

Sheet Music for Intermediate Players

Diabelli: 11 Sonatinas, Op. 151 & 168

Full songs of sonatinas by Diabelli, part of them appeared in “Sonatina Album”. Plain and pure compositions, you can play enjoying.

Level 3/5

Diabelli: 11 Sonatinas
(Alfred Masterwork Edition)

Anton Diabelli: Eleven Sonatinas For Piano
(Schirmer Library of Classics)

Clementi: Sonatinas, Op. 36, 37, 38

I recommend this score book for the same reasons as above. And, also this sonatinas have Italian elegant and light taste.

Level 3/5

Clementi: Sonatinas
(Schirmer Library of Classics)

Satie: Gymnopedies & Gnossiennes

“3 Gymnopedies” is the 3 song suit is consist of mysterious also transparent songs. The songs are suitable for an introduction to full-scale piano compositions and concert repertory. 6 or 7 Gnossiennes is the suit of strange but beautiful and calm compositions, but Alfred and Schirmer books below contains only the 3 parts.

Level 3/5

Satie: Trois Gymnopedies
on YouTube

Satie: Trois Gymnopedies
on Spotify

Satie: 7 Gnossiennes
on YouTube

Satie: 7 Gnossiennes
on Spotify

Satie: Gymnopedies & Gnossiennes
(Alfred Masterwork Edition)

Satie: Gymnopedies and Gnossiennes
(Schirmer Performance Editions)

Satie: Gnossiennes (1 à 6)
(Henle)

Satie: Complete Gymnopédies and Gnossiennes
3 gymnopédies and 7 gnossiennes

Chaminade: Album des enfants, Op. 123 & 126

“L’Album des enfants est un recueil de chansons influencé par l’impressionnisme et comportant des éléments de classicisme, doux, élégant et de niveau intermédiaire, écrit par une compositrice française de qualité, Cécile Chaminade.

Level 3/5

Chaminade: Album des enfants
on YouTube

Chaminade: Album des enfants
on Spotify

1ère série on IMSLP

2ème série on IMSLP

MacDowell: Woodland Sketches, Op. 51

Refreshing, sweet and nostalgic piano suit by an American composer.

Level 3.5/5

MacDowell: Woodland Sketche
(Schirmer Performance Editions)

Edward MacDowell: Woodland Sketches
(FJH Classic Editions)

Mozart: 6 Viennese Sonatinas

Level 3.5/5

Mozart: 6 Viennese Sonatinas
(Alfred Masterwork Edition)

Mozart: Six Viennese Sonatinas: Piano
(Hal Leonard Piano Library)

Schumann: Album for the Young, Op. 68

A educational songbook was composed by the great romantic composer, Robert Schumann. But the songs are good and beautiful as a musical work and to play fun.

Level 3.5/5

Schumann: Album for the Young
(Alfred Masterwork Edition)

Schumann: Album for the Young
& Scenes from Childhood
(Schirmer Library of Classics)

Granados: Valses Poeticos

Level 3.5/5

Enrique Granados: Valses Poeticos
(Fjh Classic Editions)

Enrique Granados: Valses Poéticos
(Kalmus Edition)

Haydn: Piano Sonatas

All songs of sonatas by Joseph Haydn, part of them appeared in “Sonata Album”. Plain and elegant compositions, and the basis of the classical period music and monophony music.

Level 3.5 – 4/5

Haydn: Piano Sonatas, Book 1
(Schirmer Library of Classics)

Haydn: Piano Sonatas, Book 2
(Schirmer Library of Classics)

Mozart: Piano Sonatas

Level 4/5

I recommend this score book for the same reasons as above.

Mozart: 19 Sonatas, Complete
(Schirmer Library of Classics)

Chopin: Waltzes

Level 4/5

Chopin: Waltzes (Complete)
(Alfred Masterwork Edition)

Chopin: Walzer
(G. Henle)

Schumann: Kinderszenen, Op. 15

Level 4/5

Schumann: Scenes from Childhood
(Schirmer Performance Editions)

Schumann: Kinderszenen (Scenes d’enfants)
(G. Henle)

Debussy: 2 Arabesques

Level 4/5

Debussy: Deux Arabesques for the Piano
(Alfred Masterwork Edition)

Debussy: Deux Arabesques
(G. Henle)

Ravel: Pavane pour une infante défunte

Level 4/5

Ravel: Pavane pour une infante défunte
(Alfred Masterwork Edition)

Grieg: Lyric Pieces

Charming and elegant sometime brave and melancholic 6 four part piano suits were written by the Norwegian most famous composer, were influenced by the French impressionism.

Level 3.5 – 4/5

Grieg: Complete Lyric Pieces
(Schirmer Library of Classics)

Complete Lyric Pieces for Piano
(Dover Classical Piano Music)

Piano Solo Master-pieces & Grand Works

J. S. Bach: The Well-Tempered Clavier

The standard and grand work of keyboard music by Johan Sebastian Bach. It was composed for to educate you players and to enjoy keyboard music. This suit book 1 and book 2, each book contains 24 songs of all 24 keys. I recommend this suit for players want to be a high grade player of polyphony music from an intermediate, and this book(s) can be used as a daily exercise text.

Level 4.5/5

Bach: The Well-Tempered Clavier, Complete
(Schirmer Library of Classics)

Bach: The Well-Tempered Clavier, Part 1
(G. Henle)

Bach: The Well-Tempered Clavier, Part 2
(G. Henle)

Beethoven: Piano Sonatas

The most famous and grandiose piano solo music. And the music of the peak and ripeness of the classical period.

Level 5/5

Beethoven: Complete Piano Sonatas
(Schirmer Library of Classics)

Brahms: 3 Intermezzi, Op. 117

An elegant, melancholic and calm composition as Brahms. An perpetual and precious romantic music master-piece.

Level 5/5

Brahms: 3 Intermezzi
(Alfred Masterwork Edition)

Brahms: 3 Intermezzi
(G. Henle)

Chopin: Etudes

This song book is not a usual etude, one of the master-pieces and the most beautiful and brave but difficult compositions of the history of piano music. Also for virtuoso players, it’s daily exercise etudes.

Level 6/5

Chopin: Etudes for the Piano
(Schirmer Library of Classics)

Chopin: Etudes
(G. Henle)

Ravel: Jeux d’eau

A master-piece of the impressionism music. This elegant also extreme composition was an avant-garde music in that time. One of the most inspirational and effective repertories of concert performance, also in today.

Level 5.5/5

Ravel: Jeux d’eau
(G. Henle)


Notes of the Enrire History of Piano Solo Music

Best Classical Recordings
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Best Classical Recordings
on Spotify

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Note | A Definition of Philosophy

What is Philosophy ?

The origin of the word philosophy is “philosophia” of Greek, love or collection of wisdom or knowledge. The definitions of philosophy by André Comte-Sponville is “a (discursif, reasonable and conceptional) theoretical practice”. And the definition of philosopher by Roger-Pol Droit is a specialist of ideas (or concepts) and a friend of knowledge-wisdom.

Philosophy is a way of thinking by concepts and principles for a fundamental comprehensive account of the world. Subjects of the account are (what are) being, human, self, others, life, knowledge, perception, time, virtue, happiness, reality, society, world, universe, to live good and so on.

Philosophy forms or let you have a view to the world and the life. Because it is a fundamental account of the world. So philosophy become a criterion of how to think and how to live good.

Philosophy is a “language game” aims for the universality and mutual general understanding. Philosophy itself and its principles is not absolute and true. Philosophy can be remade to be better one.

Different to Religion

Religion is also a comprehensive account of the world. But religion teaches believers the origin of world, the meaning of life and moral by a story. And a most important thing of religion is believers believe a story of a prophet or a founder, and believe there’s a truth in its story. Religion gives us truth, and salvation, peace mind and the meaning of life by truth, so it’s an indispensable thing for human.

Religion pursuits a truth, but philosophy pursuits a universality. And essences, methods or worths of philosophy and religion are not same. They are in different aspects or spheres. So they are comparative each other. And we can hold both philosophy and religion.

Philosophy is a Process

Philosophy always begin from nothing, root or ignorance, on the other hand it should follow philosophical tradition, problems and themes. New philosophies have appeared as a critical following or a critical turn. Almost philosophers refine their philosophy for their entire career by their own further researches, and arguments and criticisms by others. Philosophy isn’t a truth or a fact. It’s a changeable principle is refined and replaced by better one(s). Because aim of philosophy is to grasp a universality and mutual understanding. So philosophy is an endless process of thinking.

And the history of philosophy is a succession of conflicts between monism and dualism or pluralism, absolutism and relativism, realism and idealism, subjectivism and objectivism, rationalism and anti-philosophy.

Different to Science

Once, Philosophy includes today’s natural science, engineering and social science. The past philosophy is a total science to know principle of the nature and the world. Modern philosophy and modern science are divided, and the feature of modern science is pursuit physical and material facts unlimitedly. Science grasps and describes facts as they are.

But science doesn’t give us principal value of the life. Different to science, philosophy inquires “why and how the facts exit”. Philosophy treats value and meaning of facts include scientific facts. A role and a significance of philosophy is principal value and ethical judgement by thinking about facts. Science can’t reply to questions like “How it should be ?” and “How I live ?”.

On the other hand, the progress of science influences our view to the world and philosophy. Also philosophy of science inquires into the basis and the meaning of science.

Conclusion

  1. Philosophy is a way of thinking by concepts and principles for a fundamental comprehensive account of the world.
  2. Its principle always begin from nothing or ignorance. Philosopher must think by himself, but his thinking should be in the philosophical tradition, themes or problems.
  3. Philosophy is not absolute and true, is a variable process of thinking. Its aim is a universality and mutual understanding of the world.
  4. Philosophy tells how to think and how to live good. So philosophy is a criteria of our thinking, act and life, and give us a key to a the meaning and value of our life.

But philosophy has no fixed definition. Continue to think about what is philosophy or definition of philosophy is also an important element of philosophy.

And some thinkers or philosophers (such as Pyrrho, Schopenhauer, Nietzsche, Deleuze and Derrida) said like “there’s no universal view to the world”, “The philosophical tradition is a fiction.” and “There isn’t a good life and the meaning of life of the world”. These skepticism, pessimism and unti-philosophy are also a philosophy as well.

References

André Comte-Sponville, La philosophie (Presses Universitaires de France, 2012)

Roger-Pol Droit, La philosophie expliquée à ma fille (Édition du Seuil, 2004)

Seiji Takeda, What is Philosophy: To Know Yourself and Society (Iwanami Books, 2002)

Seiji Takeda, A Super Introduction to Philosophy from Age 14 (Chikuma Books, 2009)

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