Tag: Aristotle

Posted on

Note | Philosophy of Aristotle

Contributor to Every Fields of the Human Knowledge

Aristotle is the greatest philosophers, and one of the greatest polymaths in the human history. He researched on all of knowledge from today’s natural science to social science and humanities, for example biology, natural history, physics, metaphysics, ethics, aesthetics, logic, rhetoric, psychology and politics. And his noteworthy achievement is the inquires on the system of knowledge, being, activity and logic.

Aristotle collected and organized theories of Greek philosophy till Socrates and Plato, and give back philosophy to Presocratic natural study, also he adopted Socratic ethical thought and modified Plato’s philosophy.

Metaphysics

Aristotle was a most eminent pupil of Plato, and he criticized Plato’s philosophy and critically succeed it. Aristotle inspected the defect of Plato’s theory of forms and modified it. He turned around Plato’s idealistic view and presented his realistic view, also grasp the natural things and world. And he planned to moderate Presocratic natural philosophy and Plato’s theory of ideas.

On Plato’s theory of forms, we can’t confirm existence of the world of idea, and on the theory of forms, the connection between form and things is unclear. And the theory of forms apply only productive and artificial things (things can exist by techne), can’t apply natural things (things can exist by physis). Aristotle inquired the changes and transformations of things, also tried to construct a theory covers natural things and the nature.

Different to Plato’s idealistic and abstract theory of forms, Aristotle thought each things and existences should be grasped concretely. The four causes theory describe all ousia (independent being or substance, or subject of a sentence) are made by a combination of eidos, hyle, dynamis and entelecheia

Aristotle thought all things have aspects of eidos (form or essence) and hyle (matter, stuff or existence). Eidos is formal cause of things and hyle is material cause of things.

Plato thought a connection between a thing (matter) and an idea (eidos) is accidental and external. But Aristotle thought hyle includes eidos as a potentially. The potentiality is named dynamis (agent, potentiality and efficient). Dynamis is moving cause of things, and the state is realized by it is named entelecheia (actuality, end or purpose).

All things are understood, have dynamis and entelecheia, and are relative between them. A tree is a purpose of a seed, also is potentiality of a material wood. A material wood is an actuality of a tree, also a potentiality of a desk. A desk is an actuality of a wood, also an agent of writing or working.

By Aristotle’s view is biological, and all things are moving. All things or existences are in the teleological moving to realize potentiality is in each of things. And this moving of things is caused by the power of gods. For Aristotle, to see this moving or changing is to feel gods’ grace. So Aristotle called his metaphysics “theology”.

Ethics

Aristotle’s teleological view to the nature relates to his practical philosophy or ethics. He thinks good men can be wise and virtuous only by experiences of praxis, like the moving of things. He thought moral and ethics can’t teach for children, only adult can study them.

Ethics treats the aspect of praxis (practice or action) in which the internal function itself of beings which works and realizes. In a scene of praxis, the problem is human nature and the virtue. On the other hand, virtue is not opposite to the nature, but is not given by the nature. Men can be virtuous to perceive the nature, and to complete the human nature by habits. Ethics is a point joins the nature and techne. Virtue is a kind of habit made by the human nature, become the second nature, it means virtue is ethos (characteristics, habit) of human.

The human proper property different to other creatures and things is logos (discretion or reason). Aristotle thought happiness is realized when logos in a spirit performs on a scene of praxis.

And the supreme good state by Aristotle, is theoria (theory), the stable state such as perception, reflection or meditation to see and appreciate changing of things and praxis by logos.

Problems of Aristotlian Philosophy

Aristotle made a great achievement and contribution in philosophy, but he remained many problems on philosophy.

He organized all theories of Greek philosophy, and constructed a huge system of philosophy. But he made philosophy complexed. Philosophy after Aristotle to the modern philosophy, became interpretation and argument about Aristotle’s philosophy. Especially the medieval scholasticism solely adapted and harmonized Christian theology and Aristotle’s philosophy. The problem of universals was the argument about which is important essentia (Aristotle’s eidos) or existentia (hyle) for a long time.

Plato’s theory of ideas is a total universal monism system, can explain being, changing, moral, beauty and politics. Aristotle made a total system of philosophy and science, but he divided science and philosophy into many subjects and branches. And there are different principles is in each subjects and branches, he thought.

Also his thinking of the divide of the static principle of metaphysics and the world of theoria from the biological changeable world left many problems in philosophy.

References

Hiroyuki Ogino, Symposion of Philosophy: Socrates, Plato, Aristotle (NHK Publishing, 2003)

Jonathan Barnes, Aristotle: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford University Press, 2000)

Jean-François Revel, Histoire de la philosophie occidentale (Nil Éditions, 1994)

Luc Ferry & Claude Capelier, La plus belle histoire de la philosophie (Éditions Points, 2014)

Roger-Pol Droit, Une brève histoire de la philosophie (Flammarion, 2008)

Bertrand Russell, The History of Western Philosophy (Simon & Schuster, 1972)

Nigel Warburton, A Little History of Philosophy (Yale University Press, 2011)

Roger Scruton, A Short History of Modern Philosophy (Routledge, 2002)

Gen Kida, History of Anti-Philosophy (Kodansha Academic Library, 2000)

Seiji Takeda, An Introduction to Philosophy: To Know Thyself (Chikuma Arts-and-Science Library, 1993)

Shigeto Nuki, Philosophy Map (Chikuma New Books, 2004)

Sumihiko Kumano, The History of Western Philosophy: From The Ancient to The Middle Ages (Iwanami New Books, 2006)

Thierry Paquot & François Pépin, Dictionnaire Larousse de la Philosophie (Éditions Larousse, 2011)

Simon Blackburn, The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy (Second Edition Revised), (Oxford University Press, 2008)

Robert Audi, The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy (Second Edition), (Cambridge University Press, 1995)

Thomas Mautner, The Penguin Dictionary of Philosophy (Second Edition), (Penguin Books, 2005)

Related Posts and Pages

Note | Plato’s Theory of Ideas

Note | A Definition of Philosophy

Note | A Definition of Ethics

Note | Philosophy of Socrates

Timeline of Philosophy

Philosophy / Philosophie

Posted on

Note | Plato’s Theory of Ideas

Plato

Plato is the first philosopher set up philosophy as a total principle and a total human study. He was s pupil and the most influential successor to Socrates. Plato theorized Socrates’ act of life, his pursuit for virtue and truth, thought and questions, then established a philosophical principale theory (as a love of wisdom) for the first time.

And Plato, in his dialogues, treated many philosophical topics such as being, virtue, wisdom, beauty and politics which last until now.

The Theory of Ideas

Plato’s famous and important key concept is the theory of Ideas, also called the theory of forms, the doctrine of ideas.

The word origin of idea is “idein”, “to see” in ancient grec. The meaning of word idea in is “form or appearance is seen”. Also Aristotle’s eidos (form) has same origin and similar meaning. (But their actual meaning is different.) Idea is not unclear, airy, fluid or rough concept. It’s an abstract and unreal but solid and absolute form in the heaven, of which things and abstract concepts have. Plato’s idea is the original ideal form of each of things. Ideas belong to each species of things and concepts.

For example square. A square on a paper written by a man isn’t perfect, the lines are not completely straight and same length, and have thickness, the angles are not completely right angle, and the inner space is not completely closed or the lines stick out slightly. But we recognize it as a square. Like this, Plato thinks a square on a paper shares the idea of square. And Plato thinks each things (such as tree, desk and horse) and abstract concepts (such as good, love and beauty) have their ideas. Also things are in existence since they are provided, shared out by their idea.

Plato’s thinking is curious for us, but it supposed to have the aim to criticize the realistic view, materialism and decadence of Athens’ democracy, Presocratic philosophers and sophists. Their thoughts are things to leave to take its own course. Socrates and Plato thought the cause of the decadence is especially realism, practicalism and relativism of sophists.

Until Socrates, Presocratic philosophers researched the rule and system in the nature and they think there’s truth in the nature. Platon made the view to world reversed. Plato’s theory of ideas advocate the value of things and politics as they should be. The thought of Plato is order of spirit or mind makes a world. So the truth is in a mind of each persons.

Universal Principle and Problems of Platonism

The property of Ideas of each things are eternal and unchangeable. So an idea is identical and universal for everyone. By Plato’s thought, all wise men and men want to live good pursue and want the idea of good. And the idea of good is one and eternal, so they can understand mutually and have the universal principle of good. The theory of ideas shows possibility of mutual understanding and universal principle.

Plato’s philosophical thought by the theory of ideas called Platonism. Platonism teaches us the value of pursuit truth, virtue, wisdom and beauty. It’s a kind of idealism, positivism and optimism. There are ideal and perfect states of things in the world of idea, the model of the real world, and we can pursuit them and we should do it. A typical influence by Platonism is seen on education. Children must not be led nature take its own course, should be educated to become a good person.

On the other hand, there are any problems of Platonism. Platonism thinks the truth or the idea of good is one. So it can’t accept diversity of values. And Platonism bring about logical optimism, excessive rationalism and totalitarianism.

Platonism thinks there’s the world of ideas beyond the real world far in the distance, and offers pursuit for the world of ideas and truth, but we can’t never reach and grasp the true, ideal and perfect states of things. Platonism is an idealism, so it never fulfil the thought perfectly. And it regard reality or the real world is inferior to the world of ideas, the real world is provisional and temporary world. So Platonism possibly result in nihilism and cynicism.

Binomial opposition of ideas and reality of Platonism have been influenced on the Western thought and culture for good and bad.

Conclusion

Plato theorized Socrates’ philosophy, established the philosophy as love of wisdom in earnest which became the tradition of philosophy, and set up the first total philosophical principle unit ontology, ethics, beauty, politics and so on. Theory of ideas includes and units ontology, ethics, aesthetics and political thought. The theory of ideas and Platonism are a strong and influential ways of thinking.

Platonism have been influenced on the Western thought and culture. But it concealed the value of diversity, and regarded earthly world and life inferior and worthless.

References

Hiroyuki Ogino, Symposion of Philosophy: Socrates, Plato, Aristotle (NHK Publishing, 2003)

Julia Annas, Plato: Very Short Introduction (Oxford University Press, 2003)

Paul Strathern, Plato in 90 Minutes (Ivan R. Dee, 1996)

Seiji Takeda, Introduction to Plato (Chikuma Books, 2015)

Jean-François Revel, Histoire de la philosophie occidentale (Nil Éditions, 1994)

Luc Ferry & Claude Capelier, La plus belle histoire de la philosophie (Éditions Points, 2014)

Roger-Pol Droit, Une brève histoire de la philosophie (Flammarion, 2008)

Bertrand Russell, The History of Western Philosophy (Simon & Schuster, 1972)

Nigel Warburton, A Little History of Philosophy (Yale University Press, 2011)

Roger Scruton, A Short History of Modern Philosophy (Routledge, 2002)

Gen Kida, History of Anti-Philosophy (Kodansha Academic Library, 2000)

Seiji Takeda, An Introduction to Philosophy: To Know Thyself (Chikuma Arts-and-Science Library, 1993)

Shigeto Nuki, Philosophy Map (Chikuma New Books, 2004)

Sumihiko Kumano, The History of Western Philosophy: From The Ancient to The Middle Ages (Iwanami New Books, 2006)

Thierry Paquot & François Pépin, Dictionnaire Larousse de la Philosophie (Éditions Larousse, 2011)

Simon Blackburn, The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy (Second Edition Revised), (Oxford University Press, 2008)

Robert Audi, The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy (Second Edition), (Cambridge University Press, 1995)

Thomas Mautner, The Penguin Dictionary of Philosophy (Second Edition), (Penguin Books, 2005)

Related Posts and Pages

Note | Philosophy of Socrates

Note | A Definition of Philosophy

Note | A Definition of Ethics

Timeline of Philosophy

Philosophy / Philosophie

Posted on

Note | A Definition of Ethics

What is Ethics

Ethics is a branch of philosophy. It is a principle, a norm or a theory of behaviour, value, and judgement about good or bad, are invented, made up or reformed by philosophical reflexions. To say quite simply, ethics is a form of knowledge treats human good and bad, or a principle of moral, but it’s not exact.

The founder of Stoicism, Zeno of Citium first divide philosophy into three parts of principle: physics, logic and ethics. Aristotle really invented ethics as a separated study which inspired by ethical thought of Socrates and Plato. Originally, Aristotle’s ethics treats all of humane matters such as living human itself, law and system of society. While Aristotle’s physics treats natural matters are not affected by human. Once ethics was total human study, but the time go on ethics was separated by many fields of humanities and social studies. Now a day, ethics exclusively covers moral, morality, matters about them and action by them.

Difference to Moral

Also, moral or morality is a manner or a way of behaviour and judgement of a man live in the world. But ethics and moral are formed by different roots. Moral is a type of norm and value set naturally inherits past and tradition, or typically from a religion. Also, moral is a judgement by intuition to judge good or bad, a natural and spontaneous thinking about behaviour, what we should do and how to act.

The word, ethics is used for exclusively for the field, the norm and the rule of behaviour are built, invent and formed by the method of general collective reflection. Face with a new situation or problem, it’s necessary to allow or forbid these acts, decide them good or bad in each of cases, persons and situations. Ethics is the rule is elaborated and shaped by accounts and realities of multiple points of view, and find a consensus or an accept among each individuals.

Significance of Ethics

Moral can’t deal with contemporary problems such as biotechnology, doping, environmental destruction, globalization, multiculturalism, information technology and AI. These problem must be considered by various view points, various facts, up-to-date knowledge and various principles of general ethics. And, by the ethical consideration, new principles of applied ethics (such as bioethics) in each fields should be formed. On ethics we reflect on to justify rules, to found choices of action, and point of beginning of our commitments. So ethics is a solution to new problems or peculiar situations.

Today is the age of globalization, so we need a universal mutual understanding beyond divides of countries, regions, religions, races, classes, traditions and common knowledge. Moral is formed by tradition, common knowledge and spontaneousness. So it is different in countries, religions and social positions. Moral might occur conflicts and problems. But ethics is formed by common sense and philosophical reflection, always begin from nothing, and present a mechanism of relations to others. Ethics is a key to live better together in the age of globalization.

Conclusion

  1. Ethics is a principle treats behaviour, value, and judgement about good or bad, are invented, made up or reformed by philosophical reflexions and common sense.
  2. Ethics is the rule is elaborated and shaped by accounts and realities of multiple points of view, and find a consensus or an accept among each individuals.
  3. Moral is a type of norm and value set naturally inherits past and tradition.
  4. Significance of ethics is which give us a solution to new problems or peculiar situations, a key to mutual understanding in the age of globalization.

References

Christopher Panza & Adam Potthast, Ethics for Dummies (Wiley Publishing, 2010)

Roger-Pol Droit, L’éthique expliquée à tout le monde (Éditions du Seuil, 2009)

Yoshiaki Utsunomiya, Introduction to Ethics (Chikuma Books, 2019)

Related Posts and Pages

Note | A Definition of Philosophy

Philosophy of Socrates

Timeline of Philosophy

Philosophy / Philosophie