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‘German Philosophy (A Very Short Introduction)’ by Andrew Bowie, Oxford University Press

‘German Philosophy: A Very Short Introduction’ by Andrew Bowie is an introduction to German philosophy.
In this book, Bowie introduces philosophers and philosophical schools of German philosophy almost chronologically.

Digests of each chapters are below.
Introduction – The Anglo-American philosophers regard German philosophy as both impenetrable and excessively speculative. Beside, the analytical philosophy has concentrated their constituent by the formulation of the modern natural science. But the philosophy became inadequate to our everyday actual life. Although German philosophy work on the problem of modernity and present how we might deal with the real world.
Chapter 1 – Kant radically separated the cognitive knowledge and the ethical knowledge. Modern nihilism is the consequence of the idea that there is no value in nature.
Chapter 2 – Before the ‘linguistic turn’, the origin of language considered to be divine. It is a part of God’s creation to the intelligibility to the world. Herder and Hermann’s concerning about language rejects to accept mathematics as the basis of science and reason. Instead, the only first and last content and principle of reason is language. The modern conception of ‘hermeneutics’ derived from this linguistic turn.
Chapter 3 – German Idealism aims to rethinks the relationship between the subject and the object in Kant’s claims. The core of philosophy becomes the activity of the subject, not the explanation of the natural world of the object. German Idealism tries to find new way of clarifying the ‘unconditioned’ or the ‘Absolute’.
Chapter 4 – The problem revealed by the view of German Romantics is that knowing one has reached that final truth would entail a prior familiarity with that truth, otherwise it would be impossible to recognize that it is the final truth.
Chapter 5 – Marx’s key thought is that aggregations of individual human actions lead to unintended systematic consequences, By moving from barter to money exchange , the whole nature of society is transformed, because everything becomes potentially exchangeable for everything else. He thinks of the move beyond this world in terms of political and social revolution, in which the proletariat abolishes the system that oppresses it.
Chapter 6 – Arthur Schopenhauer’s ‘The World as Will and Representation’ is a work of thoroughgoing pessimism and atheism, which introduces a new tragic attention into modern philosophy. Friedrich Nietzsche thinks the idea of this world is an illusion, and the alternative is ‘nihilism’. This situation generated ‘ressentiment’ by Christian ‘slave morality’ called by Nietzsche. Then he began to attempt to destroy and renew philosophy in the Western tradition which originated from Christianity and Platonism.
Chapter 7 – Neo Kantianist philosophers, the Marburg School reinterpreted Kant’s view of philosophy’s relationship to the natural science in the light of new scientific discoveries. Analytical philosophy, The second linguistic turn by Bernard Bolzano’s semantic approach led philosophy to the direction of the pragmatics of language. Gottlob Frege made advances in logic and created analytical philosophy, but it didn’t play the main role in German philosophy. On the other hand, nevertheless influenced by Frege, Edmund Husserl seeks a new way of describing philosophy and founded phenomenology. His concept of ‘pre- and extra-scientific life-world’ includes all actual life and the life of scientific thought, and emerges from a ‘self-enclosed world of ideal objectivities’.
Chapter 8 – Martin Heidegger asked what ‘being’ fundamentally means. His explanation of ‘being’ means something like ‘being accessible. We emerge into the world with subsequently investing with meaning, so the world we inhabit is always already meaningful. Our engagement with things isn’t based on the idea of what they essentially are, but rather it’s based on what we aim to do with them.
Chapter 9 – Critical Theory, following Marx, shifted the philosophical key concern from the relation of between human beings into relations between things. Theodor Adorno regard the modern world as a ‘universal context of delusion’ which fails controlling the advance of knowledge and technology, and became barbarism. But his pupil Jürgen Habermas claims that Adorno’s critical theory works with a conception of rationality as something purely instrumental, which excluded its communicative basis.
The characteristic of German philosophy is to face a tension extending and critically assessing the tradition from Kant onwards, and to see how philosophy can be used to address pressing social and political problems.

Author introduces and comments philosophers, schools and these theories of German philosophy almost chronologically from Kant to the critical theory of Frankfurt School. His main attention is how German philosophy have been formed and changed, and it have coped with society, politics, modernity, linguistic thought, culture, reason, enlightenment, knowledge, science, (German) philosophy itself and its tradition.
Author emphasizes German philosophy copes with matters of society, politics and ‘pragmatism’. But the description of this book is ambiguous and not easy. And it is idealistic and slightly complex like German philosophy.
Yet, this book is very useful for you to look over digests of isms, schools, theories, background and their transition of German philosophy. Also it’s helpful to concern the worth of German philosophy and difference of it to the Anglo-American analytical philosophy.

German Philosophy (Very Short Introductions)
Andrew Bowie
Oxford University Press, Oxford, 27 May 2010
152 pages, £7.99, $11.95
ISBN: 978-0199569250
Contents:
List of illustrations
Introduction: Why German Philosophy?
1. Kant and Modernity
2. The Linguistic Turn
3. German Idealism
4. ‘Early Romantic’ Philosophy
5. Marx
6. Nietzsche, Schopenhauer, and the ‘Death of God’
7. Neo-Kantianism, Analytical Philosophy, and Phenomenology
8. Heidegger
9. Critical Theory
References
Further Reading
Index

‘Continental Philosophy (A Very Short Introduction)’ by Simon Critchley, Oxford University Press

‘Continental Philosophy: A Very Short Introduction’ by Simon Critchley is an introduction to continental philosophy. In this book, Critchley introduces some values and issues of some movements of the Continental philosophers, instead a usual chronologically account of the Continental philosophy.

Digests of each chapters are below.
Chapter 1 – Philosophy is the love of wisdom. The wisdom concerns what it might mean to lead a good life. In the ancient world philosophers integrated wisdom and knowledge. But, in a science-dominated world, scientific conception of the world does not close the gap between knowledge and wisdom, they are split apart. Author thinks the Continental philosophy attempts to unify knowledge and wisdom.
Chapter 2 – In this caphter, author comments the historical distinction of Continental and analytic philosophy. There are two way of beginning of Continental philosophy, one is Edmund Husserl, another is Immanuel Kant. The contemporary division between analytic and Continental philosophy was caused by a division of interpretations on Gottlob Frege’s philosophy of logic and language between Husserl and Bertrand Russell to Ludwig Wittgenstein. The another origin of Continental philosophy is Kant’s critical philosophy. Neo-Kantianism dominated German and French between 1890 to the late 1920’s. German Idealism of Fichte, Schelling and Hegel followed Kant’s thought of judgement the mediator of nature and freedom.
Chapter 3 – Author consider some problem with the distinction between Continental and analytic philosophy. The Continental philosophy is a professional self-description, organize their own intellectual allegiances. And the Continental philosophy regard meaning of truth as important, just the opposite Benthamite concern with empirical truth. It’s a cultural feature. There are two cultures in philosophy, ‘scientists and literary intellectuals’.
Chapter 4 – The essence of the Continental tradition of philosophy is a practice as the historical nature of philosophy and the historical nature of philosopher who engages in this practice. Human creation demand for a transformative practice of philosophy and thought. They inscribe, criticize and redeem the present. Heidegger’s concept of ‘Destruktion’ is the production of a tradition as something made a process of reputation or retrieval, what he calls ‘Wiederholung’. By an act of critical and historical reflection, this relation of thought and tradition is achieved through an act of retrieval and repetition. Author illustrates the Continental philosophy is repetitions of from Critique though Praxis to Emancipation.
Chapter 5 – Nihilism of Nietzsche is not only a negation of the Christian-Moral interpretation of the world but also a consequence of it. Nihilism is a psychological state which is realized by our awareness that the universe are meaningless. It is the consequence of moral valuation by Kantian critique, and is a revaluation of values. Then nihilism leads Continental philosophy to attempt non-philosophical discourses and practices that respond to the crisis of modern society.
Chapter 6 – Author introduces the dispute of misunderstanding about ontological beings and the scientific conception of the world between a metaphysical enquiry on being by Heidegger and the logical positivism by Carnap and the Vienna Circle. Both theories has flaws, but Wittgenstein’s ‘language game’ theory would be the key to mediate the conflict.
Chapter 7 – Author take up the problem of scientism of analytic philosophy versus obscurantism of the Continental philosophy. Anti-scientism criticize the model of natural science should not provide a philosophical model, and the natural sciences contribute human being to experiences of real world. Such opinion has been expressed by from Henri Bergson, Edmund Husserl, Martin Heidegger and the Frankfurt School onwards. On the other hand the risk of obscurantism is pointed out by analytic philosophers. Merleau-Ponty thinks phenomenology seeks ‘unveiling the pre-theoretical layer’ of human experience. Phenomenology tries to uncover the layer and to find a mode of appropriate description for experience on the pre-theoretical layer with its rigour and validity. And phenomenology criticize a practical view of the world from the view point of scientism is already coloured by our cognitive, ethical and aesthetic values. It’s not the value-neutral objective world. Heidegger’s productive logic is a way to pre-scientific disclosure of the life-world that lays the ground for the science. Hilary Putnam points out scientism in philosophy causes a gap between knowledge and wisdom. Putnam says in Aristotle it matches his ethics and science theories.
Chapter 8 – Present sate of philosophy is the exhaustion of a whole series of theoretical paradigms. Both Continental and analytic philosophy are great sectarian self-descriptions by the the professionalization of disciplines, the weakening go critical and practical function, and marginalization of philosophy in the life. Author thinks ‘philsoophy must be clearly argued conceptual creation in critical relation to given traditions of thinking, and not a melancholic mourning for missed opportunities or a mere technique for sharpening one’s common sense.’ Then he hopes we should overcome any lingering sectarianism and face up to the issues of today’s philosophy such as the gap between knowledge and wisdom.

This guide book is not a standard straightforward chronological account on the Continental philosophy. The characteristic of this book is seeking of roots, values and problems of some historical movements of the Continental philosophy with criticisms by analytic philosophers from a view point of English researcher. (In this book, the particular Continental philosophy was begin with Kant) Critchley treat the Continental philosophy as an object of study. Therefore this is also a comparative study the gap between the Anglo-American and the European Continent in philosophy.
He mainly argues the problems of way of thinking, methodology and intellectual self-description system of the Continental philosophy, introducing contrast some movements of the Continental philosophy with Anglo-American empiricism, analytic philosophy and philosophy of science. The Continental philosophers ‘metaphysical questions’, philosophers of analytic philosophy search theorize ‘practical scientific truth’. Both tend to be far from our ordinary life and meaningless. Even so author emphasize the worth and reason d’être of the Continental philosophy. In his opinion, the Continental philosophy is more practical and progressive than analytic philosophy.
This book is not easy but also it is only an introduction. He briefly introduces theory of phenomenology and hermeneutics and so on. Although the significances of this book are the author aroused readers’ interests in Kantian philosophy, German Idealism, nihilism of Nietzsche, phenomenology of Husserl, existentialism of Heidegger and critical theory of the Frankfurt School, and a proposal to critical reading to the Continental philosophy which also includes a critical reading to analytic philosophy and philosophy of science. Author concludes the present situation of philosophy in the world and its problems, but he doesn’t bring up how we settle the problems. Settlements to solve gaps between knowledge and wisdom, practice and theory, philosophy and life, the Continental philosophy and Anglo-American analytic philosophy would be sought by ourselves.
I wouldn’t recommend this book as a primer, recommend people who want to know a whole sketch of situation of the present entire situation of philosophy. This book will help you to critically, valuable and productive read the masterpieces of the Continental philosophy.

Continental Philosophy (Very Short Introductions)
Simon Critchley
Oxford University Press, Oxford, 22 Feb. 2001
168 pages, £7.99, $11.95
ISBN: 978-0192853592
Contents:
List of illustrations
Preface
1. The Gap between Knowledge and Wisdom
2. Origins of Continental Philosophy: How to Get from Kant to German Idealism
3. Spectacles and Eyes to See With: Two Cultures in Philosophy
4. Can Philosophy Change the World? Critique, Praxis, Emancipation
5. What is to be Done? How to Respond to Nihilism
6. A Case Study in Misunderstanding: Heidegger and Carnap
7. Scientism Versus Obscurantism: Avoiding the Traditional Predicament in Philosophy
8. Sapere Ande: The Exhaustion of Theory and the Promise of Philosophy
Appendix: System-Programme

‘Ancient Philosophy (A Very Short Introduction)’ by Julia Annas, Oxford University Press

‘Ancient Philosophy: A Very Short Introduction’ by Julia Annas is an introduction to ancient philosophy. In this book, author introduces some topics of arguments by ancient philosophers, instead a chronologically account of ancient philosophy.

Digests of each chapters are below.
Chapter 1 – How did ancient philosophers think about mind? The Stoics thought there are no parts and divisions in the human soul, and that is all rational unity one. But Plato took the psychological conflicts. He thought there are some distinct parts, they are reason, desire and spirit or anger. And in the soul reason should rule.
Chapter 2 – Author comments the problems of studying ancient philosophy by the example of Plato’s the ‘Republic’. The position, interpretation and value of a philosophical theory has been turned by historical contexts, philosophers and schools.
Chapter 3 – Ancient ethical theories have been called eudaimonist. Aristippus of Cyrene said leading a life is devoted to self-gratification which is the way to happiness. For adults, a choice of virtue and vice is the differing roads to happiness. Aristotle thought everyone agrees that their final end is happiness, and what people seek in everything they do is to live a happy life. Aristippus said pleasure is a movement, not a settled state. A happy life is an organized one of past and future pleasures. And according to Epicurus there are two kinds of pleasure. One is the kind of enjoyment, another is the static pleasure. The Epicurean happy life is a cautious and risk-aversive strategy for maintaining tranquility. By Aristotle, happiness require some amount of ‘external good’. But amount of external goods can’t depend on your happy, and, so happiness come from an organization of your life. On the other hand, view to happiness of Plato and Stoics are odd. Stoics thought virtue is the only good thing. But, in modern time, virtue and virtuous thing or person don’t match happiness or happy in the many cases. One of characteristics of ancient ethical thought is a sense of the demands of morality.
Chapter 4 – Author introduces ancient theory of knowledge. Socrates denied he has knowledge in the sense of wisdom ore understanding. This philosophically questions about knowledge taken to concern the possession of wisdom. Plato showed the dominance of what we can call the expertise model for knowledge. In his account, mathematics is a model of knowledge. The entire system bases a clear and limited set of concepts and postulates. Aristotle thought different branches of knowledge employ fundamentally different methods, so their subject-matters are basically different. Sciences are the different kinds or branches of knowledge. Scepticism means an investigator going in enquity. Scepticism philosophers said knowledge have value requires that you can satisfy the reasons that you claim. In ‘Theaetetus’, Plato claimed that truth is relative to the believer. And Epicurus thought of knowledge in terms of knower’s relation to particular matters of face. He was a rigorously empiricist. Ancient philosophers’ concerning with knowledge is focus on wisdom and understanding.
Chapter 5 – In ancient philosophy, logic was a part of philosophy in its own right, which sustains philosophical truth and demolish philosophical mistake. Aristotle, Stoic logic concerned statements assert or deny something. Stoic logic equities arguments are made up of premisses and conclusion which are all statements. Aristotelian and Stoic logic were the essential matter of philosophical study in the ancient time. Aristotle’s thought of nature is the world made up of things that have natures. Nature is the undifferentiated totality of what there is. In ancient philosophy, for example Aristotle’s teleology and Plato’s account of intellectual design by a designer God, logical method matches principal theory and reality. The error of this approach is top-down methods and accounts can control reality and facts. So these systematic overall approaches by ancient philosophers caused controversial problems up to today, but is one of origins of the modernity and the modern science.
Chapter 6 – The characteristic of philosophy is reason and argument to understand the world, somethings, self and these basis. Socrates despised all things, also gave a ultimately rational account of what the subject in question is with arguing with others. Plato made philosophy a system, a self-consciously way of thinking and a institutional study to subjects. So philosophy became a forerunner of science. Ancient philosophy has had a influential role in Western Europe and the rest of world up to the present.

This guide book is not a standard chronological account on ancient philosophy. Author comments how ancient philosopher think about some problems and matters. She clearly introduces arguments of reason with desire (the ancient psychological studies), happiness (eudaemonic), knowledge (epistemology or metaphysics), relations of logic with practical thinking and the origins of philosophy by ancient philosophers such as the Sophists, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, the Sceptics, Epicurus and the Stoics. Especially her comments of ancient eudaemonic and epistemology are readable, interesting and excellent. A remarkable point of this book is these comments become equivalent to an account of worth and significance of philosophy with its foundation.
This good book would be helpful for you to grasp the thoughts of ancient philosophers.

Ancient Philosophy (Very Short Introductions)
Julia Annas
Oxford University Press, Oxford, 12 Oct 2000
152 pages £7.99 $11.95
ISBN: 978-0192853578
Contents:
List of illustrations
Introduction
1. Human and Beasts: Understanding Ourselves
2. Why Do We Read Plato’s Republic?
3. The Happy Life, Ancient and Modern
4. Reason, Knowledge and Scepticism
5. Logic and Reality
6. When Did It All Begin? (And What Is It Anyway?)
Timeline
Further Reading
Notes
Index