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‘Philosophy (A Very Short Introduction)’ by Edward Craig, Oxford University Press

‘Philosophy: A Very Short Introduction’ by Edward Craig is a primer and introduction of philosophy. In this book, author introduces some questions, matters and isms of philosophy, doesn’t directly introduces basis, significance and purpose of philosophy.

Digests of each chapters are below.
Chapter 1 – Author thinks how science, thought and philosophy had caused. Once knowledge can be only practical, and improve your control over things. But the investigation of nature bring about belief in supernatural in human beings. The condition of human beings is supernatural and complex, today. Philosophy would be the key to recover from the crisis of complexity and divisions of science and its misapprehensions.
Chapter 2 – Ethical questions about justice and virtue (‘How should i live?’) by Socrates are called ‘Socratic question’. Socrates was excited, even he escape from the jail, to observe the wisdom and justice of him, the laws and the state or to protect his friends and pupils. The incident raise many ethical questions up to today.
Chapter 3 – Author introduces theory of David Hume’s ‘Of Miracles’. We know human testimony is sometimes to be treated with caution. But miracles must be extremely improbable. One the possible case violate the usual course of nature is an imaginary case.
Chapter 4 – Author introduces an argument on the self between King Milinda and Negasena. The self is not a charioteer controlling horses (reason and the appetites). Not only mind of self, whole of my existence in the world is a chariot all together.
Chapter 5 – Author introduces some philosophical themes looking back three chapters above. Such as ethical consequentialism, the virtue of integrity, political authority and the contrast theory, evidence and rationality, bundle theory of the mind, and problem of philosophy with historical contexts and cultural circumstances.
Chapter 6 – ‘Isms’ of philosophy are broad terms designating a certain general type of doctrine. Author comments some isms of philosophy and their relations such as idealism, dualism, materialism, empiricism, rationalism, scepticism and relativism. Author admits achievements of isms, but simultaneously he call our attention to thinkings and perceptions wouldn’t become simple, complex, dogmatic and vague by isms. Then author suggests that some isms are deliberated by relativism.
Chapter 7 – Author introduces some masterpieces in history of philosophy. ‘Descartes: Discourse on the Method’, ‘Hegel: Introduction to the Philosophy of History’, ‘Charles Darwin: The Origin of Species’ and ‘Nietzsche: The Genealogy of Morals’.
Chapter 8 – Author introduces philosophical perspectives of some constituencies. Epicurus thinks that the highest possible pleasure is freedom from physical pain and mental anxiety in individuals. Individual interests clash in the society, also restricting the individual damages everybody. Hobbes thought a way of supporting the individual was to hand over total sovereignty to the state. Marx said the working class people sell their labour to get a wage that is not much of a wage. And the work is external to the worker, it’s alienation. You should develop your potential of your personality and skills. The famous essay of John Stuart Mill ‘The Subjection of Women’ tells us women requires individual freedom, not just adult males. And Simone de Beauvoir asserts women make decision for each of us in our circumstances of inauthenticity. Also anyone promote the interests of non-human animals. And professional philosophers work in the system of philosophy, but can’t be careful of their own notions because they are just individuals. Also we make use of enormous merits they may have their faults, overconfidence and obscurity.

This book is a crooked unusual introduction to philosophy. Author doesn’t ‘introduce philosophy’. He leaves you a map or information about philosophical guide tours. Just he introduces some philosophical arguments and cases to attempt your philosophical thinkings about philosophical matters, instead of usual introductory comments on basis, significance, worth and purpose of philosophy. Also his writings are practical but some parts are much political.
Good point of this book is author test your philosophical sensation and thought. But author weights problems in front of philosophy. I have and apprehension about, contrary, readers would consider only philosophical method or rule like ‘what are the philosophical questions and objects’ rather than philosophy itself or actual problems of philosophy.

Philosophy (Very Short Introductions)
Edward Craig
Oxford University Press, Oxford, 21 Feb 2002
144 pages £6.99 $9.95
ISBN: 978-0192854216
Contents:
List of illustrations
1. Philosophy – A very short introduction
2. What Should I Do? – Plato’s Crito
3. How Do We Know? – Hume’s of Miracles
4. What Am I? – An Unknown Buddhist on the Self: King Milinda’s Chariot
5. Some Themes?
6. Of ‘isms’
7. Some More High Spots: Personal Selection
8. What’s in It for Whom?
Bibliography
Index

‘Marx (A Very Short Introduction)’ by Peter Singer, Oxford University Press

‘Marx: A Very Short Introduction’ by Peter Singer is a philosophical introduction to and commentary on a German philosopher, sociologist, economist and revolutionary socialist Karl Marx.

Digests of each chapters are below.
Chapter 1 – A brief biography of Marx.
Chapter 2 – Marx was deeply influenced by philosophy of the Hegelian system. During his student days in Berlin he was a young hegelian. In ‘the Phenomenology of Mind’ Hegel described the entire development of Mind overcomes contradiction or opposition. Mind is ‘alienated’ from itself and it becomes the same great whole in its developments. This universal mind finally achieves self-knowledge and freedom. Young Hegelians rejected Hegel’s idealism, and they think religions and authority of states are illusion. It impossible for human beings to regard themselves as ‘the highest divinity’.
Chapter 3 – Left Hegelian theologian Ludwig Feuerbach insisted philosophy begin with the material world. He considered existence precedes thought. Further more Marx stated money, neither religion nor philosophy, is the obstruction to human freedom.
Chapter 4 – Marx placed the proletariat within the framework of Hegelian philosophy. Philosophical theory need to be actualized by practical force, and that force is provided by proletariat. Proletariat possessing nothing can liberate themselves only by liberating all humanity.
Chapter 5 – The alienation from their own nature is that also they are alienated from each other. By Marx’s view, economic life is ultimately real rather than mind or consciousness. So the true total solution to alienated labour, private property, class division and any other problems of capitalism is communism.
Chapter 6 – Marx’s economic theory based on his historical materialism which is a combination of German idealism and the materialist conception of history ‘dialectical materialism’. Marx’s theory of history is a consideration of a human state of alienation. According to him, practical activities solve theoretical problems. To solve philosophical problems, we must change the world. So revolutionary activity is the matter. In modern societies the social power is the productive force of individuals. Thus the production under communism would abolish the alienation between men and their products.
Chapter 7 – Marx divided society into two spheres, the ‘economic base’ and the ‘superstructure’. And the economic base construct the superstructure. Thus society starts with power of production, or ‘productive forces’. The productive forces give rise to relations of production, and these relations constitute the economic structure of society. Law, politics, religions, ethics and moral are superstructure in a society. Marx’s idea of the goal of world history was the liberation of real human beings. By the development of human productive forces, human beings free themselves from the tyranny of nature and their own government of the world.
Chapter 8 – On this chapter, author comments theory of Marxist economics. He applied Marxist key concepts such as use-value, exchange-value, commodity, objectified labour, living labour, surplus value, alienation and necessary labour. Capitalists extend surplus value by the labour-power of proletarians, and pay only the exchange-value of labour as commodity in the labour market. Human relationship in the capitalism societies appears as the shape of the value of a commodity.
Chapter 9 – Marx wished replace capitalism with communism as social system. Communism is the final form of society and the answer to all problems. In communism society, Marx thought, universal interest of its people matches universal content or products. And communism solves the conflicts in previous society between man and nature, between man and man, between freedom and right, and between class and class. But later in life Marx abandoned the Utopian view of communism and necessity of revolution. Communism should be realized by social reforms.
Chapter 10 – Marx achieved scientific discoveries about economics and society? Whether Marx’s theory is scientifically correct or not, we should reconsider it as philosophy or systematic study to solve the problems of the modern society. Socialism societies in the twentieth century are collapsed by tracing to Marx’s misconception of the flexibility of human nature.

This book is a today’s usual balanced neutral introduction to philosophy, economics and thought of Marx. Comparatively Singer concentrate on philosophical problems of human liberty and human nature in society treated by Marx. Also author introduces the essence of ‘Marxist economic theory’ sufficiently. Author don’t conclude whether Marx’s theory is correct or not. Author raises a question of how we think about true liberty and proper society by reconsidering of Marx. Important matters are human nature in production, alienation from labour and commodities, labour theory of value, relation between individual and collective interests, and political domination in capitalism society.
Thus Marx’s optimistic view to flexibility of human nature is disfunction in actual socialism societies in the twenties century. But even today, Marxist theory is valuable to rethink and reform present free capitalism nations. We should applicate achievements of Marx. So I recommend this little good introduction to beginners who start to study Marxist theory.

Marx (Very Short Introductions)
Peter Singer
Oxford University Press, Oxford, 12 Oct 2000
128 pages, £7.99 $11.95
ISBN: 978-0192854056
Contents:
Preface
Abbreviations
List of Illustrations
1. A Life and its Impact
2.The Young Hegelian
3. From God to Money
4. Enter the Proletariat
5. The First Marxism
6. Alienation as a Theory of History
7. The Goal of History
8. Economics
9. Communism
10. An Assessment
Note on Sources
Further Reading
Index

‘Alienation: An Introduction to Marx’s Theory’ by Dan Swain, Bookmarks Publications

‘Alienation: an Introduction to Marx’s Theory’ by Dan Swain is a introduction to a German philosopher, sociologist, economist and revolutionary socialist Karl Marx. Swain comments thought and economic theory of Marx by his key concept ‘alienation’.

Digests of each chapters are below.
Introduction – Marx described how our human activity could come to be experienced as something external, alien and hostile to us as the theory of alienation. Alienation affects negative to our body and mind.
Chapter 1 – Contemporary economics ignores social and political dimensions of economy. Classical economists such as Adam Smith and David Ricard considered the wealth in the relation among human beings, nature, labour and objects. Also Jean-Jaques French philosopher Rousseau stated technological and scientific progress brought misery, inequality and moral problem in people’s economic institutions. According to him, alienation brought individual rights and liberty, but we can’t give away them.
Chapter 2 – Marx’s philosophical thought mainly succeed to ideas of Georg Hegel and Ludwig Feuerbach. He was a Left Hegelian disputant. But Marx criticise both Hegel and Feuerbach, such as Hegel’s positive idealism, Feuerbach’s thought of ‘education settle the problem of alienation’ and his static conception of human nature, then he developed his own theory of alienation.
Chapter 3 – Capitalist society required dividing society into two classes, the bourgeoisie (capitalists) and the proletariat (workers). Proletarians have no means production and are in miserable condition. Though Marx believed that the proletariat is the class can abolish capitalism and class division by their collective struggles.
Chapter 4 – Essentially, human labour is collective, conscious and transforming engagement with the natural world. In capitalism society, labour works are shaped by wages. For Marx, alienation means lack of control of our process of production. The human labour transformed into a commodity, the affair is the most fundamental form of alienation in capitalism.
Chapter 5 – Under capitalism it occurs alienation from product. Proletarians work to produce things they can’t own themselves. The labour embodied by capital is as ‘dead’. The worker performs more, he pours into the dead labour.
Chapter 6 – People relate to each other through commodities. Marx defined it as ‘commodity fetishism’. Products of labour appears as piles of abstract labour. Thus our social and personal life become commodified and is regarded as a particular value form.
Chapter 7 – Alienation of labour altered our social life and relationships with others. Capitalism and its alienated labour place the second order mediation between man and man. Capitalism causes not only struggle between classes, but also its alienation encourages proletarians to compete with workmates. Even capitalists are slaves to their own inclinations and the markets.
Chapter 8 – Marx argued, capitalism also bad for our individuality. Organized labour work and its alienation harm our physical and mental condition. Under capitalism, we’ve lost control of ourselves.
Chapter 9 – Our alienation form labour and products also means becoming alienated from the natural world in which we live and work. This drives capitalist production that extend productivity itself. The global environment is catastrophically damaged by repetitions of these processes.
Chapter 10 – A new from of labour now dominated is ‘immaterial labour’ which means the production or manipulation of symbols, texts, emotions of feelings. And bosses in company restrained by his leadership and ‘employee autonomy’. Also one feature of labour market on these days is increasing the workers get ‘over-qualified’ jobs, the jobs need degree-level or higher qualifications. Problems of alienation of work still continues today.
Chapter 11 – ‘Young Marx’ thought labour as the way in which we can find fulfilment in the world also under capitalism society. And he argued that great productivity of capitalism reduce working time and give people to more leisure time and recreational activity. But ‘Mature Marx’, in ‘Capital’, would be changed his view point. The capitalist system is autonomous process breeds ills. There’s no human nature in it.
Chapter 12 – Engels argued by the concept of ‘socialised production’, the capitalist production is social and maintained an individualised method of exchange. The capitalist production processes are collective and cooperative, but the products are distributed to people entirely individually. This ambivalence is one of the causes of crisis within capitalism society.
Chapter 13 – Capitalism alienated people from each other and from themselves. And Marx believed people exist in alienated positions in society, the matter make difficult for people to illustrate the detailed shape of an alternative society. His settlement to problem of alienated labour lay in the need for revolution by proletarians. Revolution is a essential thing of overcoming alienation.

In this book, Dan Swain introduces and comments Marx’s theory, various topics of economics and today’s social problems by young Marx’s key concept ‘alienation’. Simultaneously Swain criticise the concept and Marx’s theory, and presents many opinions about them.
Author would think economics of Marx is a theory of relationship between products or production work and human nature or human being. Alienation is key to understand the economics. The concept of alienation has ambivalent aspects. Alienation made human nature independent from natural nature, as the same time alienated labour separated human nature from their own products and production. I think alienation is not only a negative concept or situation. Alienation from natural nature and products or commodities in democratic capitalism societies can make us control ourself, include fashion, education, media and medical service.
I think some chapters go beyond Marx’s own theory. They are only reports of today’s economic issues. Marx is a 19th century person, his theory restricted by the historical dogma and he couldn’t overcome his own ideology. Marx’s theory as it is, should not adjust to today’s problem. And I think author has dogmatic left-wing thinkings like below ‘Major companies exploit poor people.’, ‘Brand is bad and only a commercial mark tempts consumers.’…
But this book is one of lucid, comparatively critical and totally good introduction to Marx’s theory and ‘economics’ that is consideration on relationship between human beings and their products.

Alienation: An Introduction to Marx’s Theory
Dan Swain
Bookmarks Publications, London, 1 May 2012
112 pages, £5.00
ISBN: 978-1905192922
Contents:
Introduction
1. Alienation and Enlightenment
2. Hegel, Feuerbach and Marx
3. A Universal Class
4. Alienation from the Labour Process
5. Alienation from Product
6. Commodity Fetichism
7. Alienation from Others
8. Alienation from Self
9. Alienation from Nature
10. Has Work Changed?
11. Species-being and Controversies of Interpretation
12. Collective Control
13. Revolution
Further Reading
Notes