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Notes on Guillaume Apollinaire and His Works

Overview

Guillaume Apollinaire (1880-1918) was a French poet and writer , a major figure in the avant-garde of the early 20th century . Known for his innovative spirit, he played a crucial role in the development of Surrealism and Cubism in literature . His work explored new poetic forms and overturned traditional conventions.

Work and Innovations

Apollinaire’s work is characterized by a great diversity of themes and styles. His most famous collection of poems , Alcools (1913), mixes traditional verse with free verse, and eliminates punctuation, which was a radical departure at the time. This formal freedom is emblematic of his desire to modernize poetry. Another of his notable collections, Calligrammes (1918), is an exploration of visual poetry, in which words are arranged on the page to form images. This technique, which he called ” calligrams ,” bridges the gap between visual art and poetry .

Influence and Heritage

Apollinaire was at the heart of the artistic and literary circles of his time. He was a close friend of many painters such as Pablo Picasso and Henri Matisse, and was a passionate advocate of Cubism, which he helped to theorize in his critical writings. His influence extended far beyond his contemporaries. He inspired the poets and writers of the following generation , notably the Surrealists, by encouraging them to explore the role of the unconscious and dreams in artistic creation. His premature death from the Spanish flu in 1918 marked the end of an era , but his legacy endures, making him one of the most influential poets of modernity .

History

Guillaume Apollinaire, whose real name was Wilhelm Albert W łodzimierz Apolinary Kostrowicki, was born in Rome in 1880. A poet and art critic, he was a major figure in the French avant-garde of the early 20th century . His life was marked by a thirst for artistic renewal and a destiny closely linked to the events of his time.

A journey between tradition and modernity

Raised in Italy, he moved to Paris in the late 19th century . There, he moved in artistic circles and became friends with iconic figures such as Pablo Picasso and André Derain. He made a name for himself in the literary world, but also in the art world, championing innovative movements such as Cubism. In 1911, he was briefly imprisoned for stealing statuettes from the Louvre, an experience that had a profound impact on him .

It was in 1913 that he published his most famous collection , Alcools. In this work, he overturned the codes of traditional poetry by removing punctuation and mixing classical and free verse. This audacity earned him praise as a precursor of poetic modernity . He continued to experiment with the collection Calligrammes (1918), in which words were arranged to form images.

The ordeal of war and a premature end

When the First World War broke out, Apollinaire voluntarily enlisted in the French army , although he was not yet naturalized. He finally obtained French nationality in March 1916. A few days later, he was seriously wounded in the head by a shell fragment. This injury weakened him considerably. After a long convalescence, he had his drama, Les Mamelles de Tirésias, performed, for which he coined the term “surrealism ” .

Weakened by his injury, he was unable to withstand the Spanish flu epidemic that raged at the end of the war. He died in Paris on November 9, 1918, at the age of 38, two days before the armistice. His funeral procession crossed paths with a parade celebrating victory. Recognized as “died for France ” because of his commitment, he is buried in the Père -Lachaise cemetery . His work and influence paved the way for many poets and movements, making him one of the fathers of modern poetry .

Timeline

Youth and literary beginnings (1880-1912)

1880: Born in Rome as Wilhelm Albert W łodzimierz Apolinary Kostrowicki.

1900: He moved to Paris, where he began to frequent avant-garde artistic circles and write for magazines.

1903: He founded the magazine Le Festin d’É sope with André Salmon .

1907: Anonymous publication of his erotic novel The Eleven Thousand Rods.

1909: Publication of The Rotting Enchanter, his first book in prose.

1911: He was briefly imprisoned following a case of the theft of statuettes from the Louvre. This event had a strong influence on his poem ” Zone ” .

Consecration and innovations (1913-1918)

1913: Publication of the collection of poems Alcools . This work marks a turning point in French poetry through the elimination of punctuation and the use of free verse.

1913: He also published The Cubist Painters, Aesthetic Meditations, a work that theorizes and defends Cubism.

1914: He voluntarily enlisted in the French army at the start of the First World War. He documented his experience in his poems .

French nationality . In March, he was seriously wounded in the temple by a shell fragment while in a trench. He underwent trepanation and began a long convalescence.

1917: He invented the word “surrealism ” to describe his drama Les Mamelles de Tiré sias.

1918: Publication of his collection of visual poems , Calligrammes.

1918: On November 9, he died in Paris, weakened by his war wound and carried off by the Spanish flu, two days before the armistice. He was declared “dead for France . ”

Characteristics of Novels

Guillaume Apollinaire’s poetry is characterized by a break with tradition and a desire to embrace modernity. He drew inspiration from the artistic movements of his time, such as Cubism, to create poetry that is both visual and musical, while retaining a lyrical and emotional dimension.

Movements and styles

Apollinaire was an avant-garde poet who played a crucial role in the transition from Symbolism to Surrealism. He introduced experimental techniques, such as the elimination of punctuation in Alcools, and championed a new aesthetic, inspired by Cubism, in which perceptions and ideas overlap and fragment, creating a multiple image. This style helped define a new “esprit nouveau” (new spirit), based on freedom and innovation.

Forms and techniques

Apollinaire revolutionized poetic form by freeing himself from traditional constraints.

Absence of punctuation: In Alcools (1913), he removes punctuation, letting the rhythm and syntax of the verse guide the meaning. This technique allows for polysemy and fluidity of ideas .

Free verse: It uses free verse, which adapts to the poet’s breath and emotion , instead of classical metrics.

Calligrams: In the collection Calligrams (1918), he goes further by creating visual poems . The words are arranged on the page to form a design, merging writing and drawing.

Themes and subjects

Although he is a modern poet , Apollinaire explores universal themes with a lyrical sensibility:

The passing of time: This is a central theme in his work, particularly in poems such as “Le Pont Mirabeau”, where the poet evokes the irreversible flight of time and love.

Love and Melancholy: It depicts love in its different forms, from passion to the pain of breakup, as evidenced in “La Chanson du Mal-Aimé “.

Urban modernity and travel: He integrates elements of the modern world (trains, automobiles, airplanes) and city settings (Paris, but also European cities) into his poetry, as in “Zone”, where he describes himself as a traveler through streets and eras.

War: His experience on the front lines of the First World War was a source of inspiration for his later poems , in which he depicted the violence of combat and the brotherhood of soldiers.

Impacts & Influences

Guillaume Apollinaire’s influence is immense and multifaceted. He is considered an essential bridge between traditional 19th-century poetry and the avant-garde movements of the 20th, profoundly influencing the literature and art of his time and subsequent generations.

Surrealism

Apollinaire’s most notable impact is his role as a precursor to Surrealism. He coined the term in 1917, in the program for his play Les Mamelles de Tirésias, to designate an art that transcends reality . His work inspired the movement’s founders, notably André Breton, with its exploration of the imagination, dreams , and the unconscious, which became central themes of Surrealism.

Cubism

Apollinaire was not only a poet , but also an influential art critic. He was one of the first and most ardent defenders of Cubism, particularly in his work The Cubist Painters (1913). His friendships with artists such as Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque fostered an artistic correspondence: Apollinaire’s poetry, with its fragmentation of images and rejection of linearity , echoes Cubism ‘s deconstruction of forms and perspectives.

Modern poetry

Apollinaire revolutionized poetic form, freeing verse from its traditional constraints.

Punctuation: The removal of punctuation in his collection Alcools (1913) was a radical break, inviting the reader to be guided by rhythm and meaning, and no longer by punctuation marks.

The poem -painting: With calligrams, Apollinaire merged poetry and the visual arts, influencing a new approach to poetic composition.

His legacy can be found in many modern poets who have continued to explore free verse and unconventional poetic forms. He is recognized as the father of poetic modernity , and his work continues to be a source of inspiration for creators worldwide.

Relationships with poets

Guillaume Apollinaire maintained complex and decisive relationships with several poets of his time, thus marking the development of the literary avant-garde. His friendships and rivalries nourished his work and that of his contemporaries.

Blaise Cendrars 🧑 ‍ 🤝 ‍ 🧑

The relationship between Apollinaire and Blaise Cendrars was both an intellectual friendship and a rivalry. Both poets , major figures of modernity, sought to create a new poetry, inspired by travel, modern technology, and the rhythm of the city. Their respective works, Apollinaire’s Alcools (1913) and Cendrars’s La Prose du Transsibérien et de la petite Jehanne de France (1913), share similar themes , which may have generated some tension.

Max Jacob 🎨 ✍ ️

Max Jacob was one of Apollinaire’s closest friends. They frequented Montmartre and the Bateau-Lavoir, sharing their bohemian lifestyle and ideas with other artists such as Pablo Picasso. Their friendship, based on complicity and mutual admiration, is symbolized by the poem ” Zone ,” which Apollinaire dedicated to Jacob in his collection Alcools. Max Jacob, who was also a painter, also painted a portrait of Apollinaire. Apollinaire and Max Jacob were witnesses at Picasso’s wedding in 1918.

André Breton 🤯​

The relationship between Apollinaire and André Breton is that of mentor and disciple. Breton considered Apollinaire his master . He was profoundly influenced by his formal innovations, notably the elimination of punctuation, and by his exploration of the imagination. It was Apollinaire who coined the term “surrealism” in 1917, to describe a play he had just created . After Apollinaire’s death in 1918, Breton and his friends claimed his legacy, and surrealism became the major literary and artistic movement we know today .

André Salmon ✒ ️​

Apollinaire and André Salmon had a close friendship and collaboration in the early 20th century . They co-founded the journal Le Festin d’Ésope in 1903, a journal that played an important role in promoting young poetry. Their friendship was marked by ups and downs, but they remained close until Apollinaire ‘s death.

Relationships

Guillaume Apollinaire was at the heart of the artistic effervescence of his time, maintaining direct and fruitful relationships with many artists who were not poets . His exchanges with these figures profoundly influenced his vision of art and literature, and made him a theoretician of the avant-garde.

The painters and the Bateau-Lavoir 🧑 ‍ 🎨

very strong links with the painters he frequented, notably those at the Bateau-Lavoir, the artists’ residence in Montmartre.

Pablo Picasso 🖼 ️

The bond between Apollinaire and Picasso is one of the most famous in the avant-garde. They met in Paris in 1905 and became close friends. Apollinaire was one of the first critics to champion Picasso’s work. The poet wrote articles on the artist, quickly recognizing his genius , particularly after seeing Les Demoiselles d’Avignon (1907). This friendship was a source of mutual inspiration, with Picasso’s work on the fragmentation of forms finding an echo in Apollinaire’s poetry.

Henri Matisse 🎨

Apollinaire also maintained a relationship with Henri Matisse, the leader of Fauvism. He wrote about Matisse’s work, calling it “a fruit of dazzling light , ” emphasizing the strength and simplicity of his art. Although he theorized more on Cubism, Apollinaire recognized and championed Matisse’s importance in modernizing painting.

Marie Laurencin 👩 ‍ 🎨

Apollinaire had a romantic relationship with the painter Marie Laurencin for several years. She was part of his circle of friends and artists in Montmartre and left a famous portrait of the group: Apollinaire and his Friends (1909). Their relationship, both passionate and tumultuous, inspired many of Apollinaire’s poems , including “Le Pont Mirabeau.”

The art dealer 💰

Apollinaire collaborated with art dealers to promote Cubism. He maintained a special relationship with Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler, a German art dealer who supported and exhibited the Cubists’ works. Kahnweiler also served as an editor for Apollinaire, notably for his first prose book, The Rotting Enchanter, which was illustrated by the painter André Derain.

Similar poets

Because of his role as a leading figure of the avant-garde, Guillaume Apollinaire is both unique and shares characteristics with several poets of his time and those that preceded him .

Precursors and models​

Charles Baudelaire (1821-1867): Apollinaire took up and modernized Baudelaire’s idea that the poet must find beauty in modernity and urban ugliness. Apollinaire’s poem “Zone,” which describes a morning walk in Paris, can be seen as a modern echo of Baudelaire’s “To the Reader,” inviting the reader on a new kind of poetic journey.

Arthur Rimbaud (1854-1891): Apollinaire shared with Rimbaud a thirst for formal freedom and a fascination with experience and travel. Their poetry is bold and challenges the conventions of their time.

Contemporaries and friends

Blaise Cendrars (1887-1961): Cendrars is often cited as a poet very similar to Apollinaire . Both are poets of modernity, who celebrate travel , technology (the train, the airplane) and the frenetic pace of urban life. Their respective poems , “La Prose du Transsibérien” for Cendrars and “Zone” for Apollinaire, are emblems of this dynamism.

Max Jacob (1876-1944): A close friend of Apollinaire, Max Jacob was also a figure of the avant-garde. His poetry, influenced by Cubism, is characterized by a fantasy and spirituality that echo Apollinaire’s style.

Successors and heirs

André Breton (1896-1966): Breton recognized Apollinaire as his “master ” and the “precursor” of surrealism. The surrealist movement, which he founded , extended Apollinaire’s exploration of the themes of the unconscious, dreams , and the imagination.

Louis Aragon (1897-1982) and Paul Éluard (1895-1952): These two surrealist poets continued along the path opened by Apollinaire, freeing themselves from traditional poetic forms and exploring new themes .

Poetic Works

The major collections

Apollinaire’s most famous and is considered a turning point in French poetry . It contains poems written over a period of more than ten years. Its most radical innovation is the absence of punctuation, which gives a new musicality and fluidity to the verses. It explores themes such as melancholy, lost love, and the passage of time, as in the emblematic poem ” Le Pont Mirabeau.”

Calligrammes (1918): This collection, published shortly before his death, is an exploration of visual poetry. The poems are presented in the form of drawings, created by the arrangement of words on the page. Apollinaire thus merged poetry and graphic art, creating a new genre that he called the “calligramme.”

Other notable works and poems

War Poems (1914-1918): During the First World War , Apollinaire wrote numerous poems inspired by his experiences at the front. These texts, often included in Calligrammes, bear witness to his commitment and his vision of a poetry that must also reflect the events of his time.

“Zone”: The opening poem of Alcools, “Zone” is considered a manifesto of poetic modernity . It evokes a stroll through Paris, mixing images of the modern world (posters, factories) and personal memories, all without punctuation, creating a stream of consciousness.

Alcohols (1913)

What is Alcools?

Alcools is a collection of poems by Guillaume Apollinaire, published in 1913. It is considered a major work of French poetry and a key turning point towards modernity . Rather than being written all at once, it brings together poems composed by Apollinaire between 1898 and 1913, offering an overview of his poetic evolution.

Main features

The absence of punctuation: This is the most striking and revolutionary feature of the collection. Apollinaire deliberately removed all punctuation to free up the verse and allow a continuous flow of ideas. The sentences flow seamlessly , creating a new musicality and forcing the reader to let themselves be carried away by the rhythm and the words.

The mixture of eras and tones: Apollinaire combines lyrical and traditional poems , inspired by love and melancholy, with poems that embrace modernity. He moves from the evocation of Greek mythology to the description of factories and advertising posters in Paris.

The “journey”: The collection is constructed as a journey through places, emotions, and memories. The opening poem , “Zone,” is the perfect example, where the poet wanders through Paris and his own memories, blending past and present .

Major themes​

Modernity: Apollinaire integrates urban life and its elements (trains, factories, posters) into his poetry, as he does in the poem ” Zone”. He is one of the first to see poetry in the modern world.

Personal lyricism: Despite its innovations, the collection remains profoundly lyrical. Apollinaire expresses his emotions, his disappointed loves ( notably in “Le Pont Mirabeau” or “La Chanson du Mal-Aimé”) and his solitude.

The passing of time: The passage of time is a central theme . The famous refrain of “Le Pont Mirabeau” – “Come the night strikes the hour / The days go by, I remain” – is a symbol of the confrontation between ephemeral memory and the permanence of things.

By breaking conventions, Alcools paved the way for many poets and left a lasting mark on 20th-century literature .

Works outside poetry

Although Apollinaire is best known for his poetry, he also left a body of work in prose and theatre that reflects his thirst for experimentation and his avant-garde spirit.

Novels and short stories

The Rotting Enchanter (1909): This story , halfway between a novel, a tale, and poetic prose, reinvents the figure of Merlin the Enchanter. The work, rich in dreamlike and fantastical images, is an exploration of the imagination.

The Heretic and Co. (1910): This is a collection of short stories that addresses various themes such as mystery , fantasy and black humor.

The Eleven Thousand Rods (1907): This erotic novel, published anonymously, contributed to Apollinaire’s reputation for libertinism. The work is characterized by daring writing and an exploration of sexual taboos.

The Murdered Poet (1916): This novel, considered one of his most important, is a semi-autobiographical story in which the hero , Croniamantal, is a poet who, like Apollinaire, is murdered .

Theater​​

The Breasts of Tiresias (1917): This play is an essential work of modernity. It was by introducing this play that Apollinaire invented the term “surrealism “. The play , absurd and provocative, depicts a universe where logic is shaken up , reflecting Apollinaire’s desire to break with the realism of the theater of his time.

Essays and art criticism

Cubist Painters, Aesthetic Meditations (1913): This work is a major contribution to the history of art. In it, Apollinaire defends and theorizes the Cubist movement, which was very dear to him . He presents the works of his friends, such as Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque, and sets out his vision of an art that no longer seeks to imitate reality , but to create a new one.

Calligrams (1918)

What is Calligrams?

Calligrammes is a collection of poems by Guillaume Apollinaire, published in 1918. Its full title is Calligrammes: Poems of Peace and War (1913-1916). This collection is a crucial step in Apollinaire’s work and in the history of modern poetry, as it radically explores the visual dimension of poetry .

Main features

The poem – drawings: The main innovation of the collection lies in the calligrams, poems in which the typographic arrangement of words forms a drawing. The text becomes an image, and the image is a text. Apollinaire thus sought to merge poetry and the visual arts, creating a new form of expression that speaks to both the mind and the eye .

Absence of punctuation: As in Alcools, Apollinaire removes punctuation in Calligrammes to free the verse and create a flow of consciousness. However, the visual forms of the calligrams act as new “punctuation marks,” organizing the reading of the poem .

The mixture of genres: The collection mixes poem – drawings with more traditional poems , while preserving Apollinaire’s spirit of experimentation.

Major themes​

War: A large part of the collection is devoted to Apollinaire’s experience during the First World War. The poems reflect the violence, danger, and brotherhood of soldiers at the front. It is a poetry of experience, directly inspired by the reality of combat .

Love and Melancholy: Despite the theme of war, Apollinaire does not abandon his lyrical themes . There are poems about love, breakup and nostalgia.

Modernism: Apollinaire continues to celebrate the modern world, but with a more personal and somber dimension, influenced by his experience of war. He incorporates elements of everyday life such as trains, trenches, and military objects, which he transforms into poetic motifs.

Calligrams is a masterpiece of the avant-garde. By transforming the poem into a painting, Apollinaire paved the way for new artistic forms and influenced future avant-garde movements, such as Surrealism.

Episodes and anecdotes

The Mona Lisa Theft (1911) 🕵 ️ ‍ ♂ ️

In 1911, the Mona Lisa was stolen from the Louvre Museum. Apollinaire was considered a suspect for a time . Indeed, one of his former secretaries, Honoré Géry Pierret, had stolen some Iberian statuettes from the museum and sold them to his friend Pablo Picasso. Out of fear, Picasso and Apollinaire then returned these statuettes to the newspaper Paris-Journal. When the Mona Lisa was stolen shortly after , the police made the connection and Apollinaire was arrested and imprisoned in the Santé prison. He spent a few days there before being released for lack of evidence, but this experience had a profound effect on him and influenced his poem ” À la Sante . ”

The invention of the word “surrealism” 🤯

Apollinaire is the creator of the word “surrealism.” In 1917, for the program of his play Les Mamelles de Tirésias, he used this term to define an art that “transcends reality . ” He saw it as a “sublimation of reality,” a way of exploring dreams and the imagination. This concept, which did not have an immediate impact during his lifetime, would be taken up and developed by André Breton, who would later found the surrealist movement and recognize Apollinaire as an essential precursor.

The war wound and the “green ribbon” 🩹

In 1916, while at the front, Apollinaire was seriously wounded in the temple by a shell fragment. He survived, but the trepanation operation left him with a visible wound, which he often covered with a bandage or ribbon. He was often seen with a green ribbon around his forehead, which became a distinctive sign of his courage and commitment to combat. This injury weakened his health and contributed to his premature death from the Spanish flu in 1918.

(This article was generated by Gemini. And it’s just a reference document for discovering poet and poetries you don’t know yet.)

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Notes on Stendhal and His Works

Overview

The life and work of Stendhal, whose real name was Marie-Henri Beyle, are inseparable from his travels in Italy and his quest for authenticity and happiness. Considered one of the fathers of the modern novel, he was able to portray the passions and ambitions of his characters with great psychological finesse.

The life of Stendhal

Born in Grenoble in 1783, Stendhal grew up in a bourgeois family. His youth was marked by the French Revolution and a sense of rebellion against the established order. He joined Napoleon Bonaparte’s army , which allowed him to travel to Italy, a country for which he developed an immediate passion. This fascination with Italy would never leave him and would profoundly influence his work. It was during one of his stays in Florence that he experienced the experience that would give its name to Stendhal syndrome, an intense physical and emotional reaction to the beauty of art. [Image of Stendhal]

After the fall of Napoleon, he left the army and devoted himself to writing . He led the life of a diplomat and traveler, which allowed him to observe the society of his time and draw inspiration from it for his novels.

Major works

Stendhal wrote several novels, essays and biographies, but his most famous works are :

The Red and the Black (1830): This is his best-known novel. It tells the story of Julien Sorel, an ambitious young man from modest backgrounds who seeks to rise socially. The work critiques French society during the Restoration , torn between the hypocrisy of the Church and the vanity of the aristocrats.

The Charterhouse of Parma (1839): This coming-of-age novel follows the adventures of Fabrice del Dongo, a naive young Italian aristocrat . The plot takes place in post-Napoleonic Italy and explores themes of love, political intrigue, and the quest for freedom .

Stendhal is also the author of On Love (1822), an essay that analyzes the different stages of romantic love, and Life of Henry Brulard, an unfinished autobiography .

Literary heritage​

Stendhal’s style is distinguished by precise writing and a very fine psychological analysis of his characters. He is considered a precursor of realism and modernity in literature. Although little recognized during his lifetime, his work was rediscovered by many authors and critics, notably Honoré de Balzac and André Gide, who praised his genius. Stendhal is today a major figure in French literature , and his novels continue to be studied and admired for their depth and modernity .

History

Henri Beyle, better known by his pen name Stendhal, was a 19th-century French novelist known for his works that explore the complex psychologies of characters. His life was marked by extensive travel, particularly to Italy, which profoundly influenced his work and worldview.

Youth and military service

Born in Grenoble in 1783, Stendhal grew up in the turmoil of the French Revolution . His childhood was difficult, marked by the death of his mother and a conflicted relationship with his father . In 1800, he joined Napoleon Bonaparte’s army , participating in the Italian campaign. It was during this time that he discovered Italian art and culture, which fascinated him. He left the army after Napoleon ‘s defeat and moved to Paris to devote himself to writing .

Literary career and travel

Stendhal began his literary career by writing essays and biographies of artists. He traveled extensively in Italy, notably to Florence, Rome , and Milan. His stays in Italy were a source of inspiration for his works and even led to Stendhal syndrome, a psychosomatic reaction he experienced when confronted with the beauty of works of art. In 1830, Stendhal published his masterpiece, The Red and the Black, which tells the story of Julien Sorel, an ambitious young man trying to rise in society. [Image from the book The Red and the Black]

The last years​

After the fall of Charles X, Stendhal was appointed French consul in Civitavecchia, Italy, a position he held until his death. During this period, he wrote his last, unfinished novel, Lucien Leuwen, which explores corruption in French politics . He also published his second masterpiece , The Charterhouse of Parma, in 1839. Stendhal died in 1842 at the age of 59.

The heritage

Stendhal is considered one of the fathers of the modern novel. His literary style, characterized by a keen psychology and a critical view of society , influenced many writers, including Honoré de Balzac and Gustave Flaubert. Although his work received relatively little recognition during his lifetime, Stendhal is now considered one of the greatest writers of the 19th century .

Timeline

The chronology of Stendhal, or Marie-Henri Beyle, is marked by a life of travel, passions, and a literary output that laid the foundations of the modern novel. Here are the key dates in his life.

Youth and military service (1783-1814)

1783: Birth of Marie-Henri Beyle in Grenoble.

1800: He joined the Napoleonic army and took part in the Italian campaign, thus discovering a country that he would idolize all his life.

1802-1810: He left the army to devote himself to literature, but returned to Napoleon’s service, which led him to travel throughout Europe .

1812: He took part in the Russian campaign.

The time of travel and writing (1814-1830)

1814: After the fall of Napoleon, he moved to Milan and devoted himself to writing. It was during this period that he wrote essays on art and music, such as History of Painting in Italy (1817) and Life of Rossini (1824).

1817: He visits Florence, where he experiences Stendhal syndrome.

1822: Publication of the essay On Love.

1827: Publication of Armance, his first novel.

1830: Publication of his masterpiece, The Red and the Black.

career and last masterpieces (1831-1842 )

1831: Appointed French consul in Civitavecchia, Italy, a post he held until his death.

1832: He wrote Souvenirs d’égotisme, an autobiographical work which was not published until after his death.

1835-1836: He wrote Vie de Henry Brulard, his autobiography, which remained unfinished .

1839: Publication of The Charterhouse of Parma.

1842: He died in Paris at the age of 59. His unfinished works , such as Lucien Leuwen and Lamiel, were published posthumously .

Characteristics of Novels

Stendhal’s novels are distinguished by several major characteristics which make them unique and modern works for their time.

Psychological analysis

Stendhal is above all a psychologist of the human heart. He is less interested in great historical events than in the deep feelings and secret motivations of his characters. His heroes, often passionate and solitary individuals, are dissected down to their smallest thoughts and contradictions. This exploration of the inner life makes his characters particularly complex and realistic .

Realism and social criticism

Although he drew inspiration from news stories for some of his plots, Stendhal positioned himself as an observer of the society of his time. His novels, such as The Red and the Black, are true social chronicles that criticize the hypocrisy, ambition, and corruption of post-revolutionary French society . He denounces the gap between ideals and reality , and shows how individuals are forced to wear masks to survive in a hypocritical world.

The ideal of happiness

Stendhal was a great admirer of Italy and Renaissance culture, which he saw as a period of energy, passion, and freedom. He contrasted this ideal of felicità ( happiness) with the gloom and conformism of his time. His characters are constantly in search of happiness, and it is this quest that drives them to take risks and rebel against social conventions. This is a recurring theme in his works and gives the novels an aspect that is both tragic and romantic.

precise writing style

Unlike other authors of his time, Stendhal rejected long descriptions and complicated sentences. His style is concise, clear, and direct, what he himself called the “little touch.” He sought to write in the simplest and most effective way possible , inspired by the Civil Code, which he read to hone his style. He said, “I read the Civil Code to write. It’s the best thing I’ve ever done.” This apparent simplicity hides great psychological depth and allows the reader to focus on what matters most: the characters’ emotions and thoughts.

Style(s), genre(s), theme ( s) and method(s)

Stendhal’s novels are distinguished by a unique blend of styles and themes , placing him at the crossroads of several literary movements.

Movements and Era

Stendhal is generally associated with Realism and Romanticism. He is often considered a precursor to Realism, as he focuses on a precise observation of society and a fine psychological analysis of his characters. However, he also falls within Romanticism through his exploration of passions, feelings, and the cult of energy and individualism, often embodied by his heroes . His work belongs to the 19th century , more precisely the period of the Restoration and the July Monarchy in France.

Genres and Forms

His major novels, such as The Red and the Black and The Charterhouse of Parma, are novels of manners and novels of apprenticeship (or Bildungsroman). In them, he depicts the customs and values of an era while following the psychological and social development of his heroes, from their youth to adulthood .

Themes and Subjects

Stendhal’s major themes are :

Ambition and social advancement: A central theme, notably in The Red and the Black, where he explores his characters’ desire to rise above their condition through talent and hypocrisy.

Happiness and Passion: The quest for happiness is a central motivation for his characters. Stendhal contrasts true passion (love, energy ) with the vanity and hypocrisy of society .

Social and political criticism: Stendhal depicts the corruption and conformism of his time, and the conflicts between the individual and society .

Italy: For him, Italy is the country of passions and authenticity , an ideal in contrast to Restoration France.

Methods and Techniques

Stendhal developed a very particular writing method :

Psychological analysis: His main technique is the dissection of his characters’ thoughts and motivations. He explores the flow of consciousness and emotions from a quasi-scientific perspective.

Concise style: Stendhal has a direct, rapid, and efficient writing style, avoiding unnecessary descriptions and stylistic flourishes. He even claimed to read articles of the Civil Code to inspire rigorous writing.

The use of news stories: To anchor his novels in reality , he often draws inspiration from news stories and trials of his time to construct his plots.

Impacts & Influences

Stendhal’s impact and influence were profound , although they were not fully recognized until long after his death. His work laid the foundations of the modern novel and directly influenced several generations of writers.

Influence on Realism and Psychology

Stendhal is considered a precursor of realism and psychological literature. His style, which focused on the precise analysis of his characters’ thoughts and motivations, broke with the idealistic romanticism of his time. Authors such as Honoré de Balzac and Gustave Flaubert admired his approach and continued his quest for a faithful description of society and human psychology . The subtlety of his inner portraits directly inspired literary psychology of the 19th and 20th centuries.

Posthumous recognition

During his lifetime, Stendhal did not achieve great commercial success . However , his talent was recognized by critics and other writers. Honoré de Balzac was one of the first to celebrate The Charterhouse of Parma as a masterpiece. True recognition came later, with the publication of his collected works and journals . In the 20th century , authors such as André Gide and thinkers like Friedrich Nietzsche praised his genius . Gide even wrote that he preferred Stendhal to Balzac, considering him a purer writer.

Thematic Heritage​​

Stendhal left a thematic legacy that still resonates. The opposition between individual happiness and social hypocrisy, the conflict between ambition and morality, and the quest for sincerity are themes that continue to be explored in literature . Stendhal syndrome, which he himself experienced , has become a concept in psychology and a symbol of the life-changing impact that art can have on human beings .

Relationships with novelists

Stendhal, whose real name was Marie-Henri Beyle, had a complex and varied relationship with other novelists of his time. His life and works stand at the crossroads of Romanticism and Realism, and his interactions with his contemporaries reflect this unique position.

Honoré de Balzac

The relationship between Stendhal and Balzac is one of the most famous in French literary history . Although they rarely saw each other, there was a mutual admiration, tinged with rivalry .

Admiration of Balzac: In 1840, after reading The Charterhouse of Parma, Balzac published a laudatory article, “Study on Mr. Beyle,” in which he praised the genius of the novel and proclaimed it a masterpiece. This article largely contributed to Stendhal ‘s fame .

Stylistic and Thematic Differences: Despite this recognition, Balzac and Stendhal were very different . While Balzac aimed to create a comprehensive social fresco with his Human Comedy, Stendhal focused on the intimate psychological analysis of his characters, in a more concise and less descriptive style. Their approaches to the novel are often contrasted .

Prosper M é rimé e

Prosper Mérimée was one of Stendhal’s closest friends. Their relationship was based on intellectual admiration and personal complicity .

Friendship and Complicity: They met in Parisian literary salons around 1822. Despite their age difference , they shared a passion for Italy, a taste for pseudonyms and a humor tinged with cynicism. Mérimée wrote a laudatory portrait of his friend after his death, highlighting his complex and endearing personality.

Mutual influence: Mérimé was influenced by Stendhal’s worldview and his sense of observation. Both rejected Romantic bombast and preferred sober writing , and their conversations informed their respective works.

Other relationships

Stendhal frequented other literary figures of his time:

Lamartine and Victor Hugo: Stendhal participated in the emergence of the Romantic movement and frequented the salons where these authors were present. However, he criticized their style, which he considered too lyrical and too idealistic, preferring the “truth” of realism.

Lord Byron: Stendhal met Lord Byron in Milan and admired him. He saw in him the embodiment of the Romantic hero, energy, and passion—qualities he sought to portray in his novels.

Relationships

Stendhal, whose real name was Marie-Henri Beyle, had significant relationships with many non-fiction figures of his time, whether from the worlds of art, ideas, or politics. These interactions profoundly influenced his worldview and his work.

The world of ideas and sciences

Stendhal was an inquisitive mind, interested in emerging psychology, science, and philosophy . He maintained a correspondence with the philosopher and economist Destutt de Tracy. He was also an avid reader of philosophers such as Condillac and Helvétius , whose theories on sensations and ideas shaped his psychology of character, centered on the pursuit of happiness and the analysis of passions.

The music

Music played a central role in Stendhal’s life. He met and admired the composer Gioachino Rossini, to whom he wrote a laudatory biography, Life of Rossini (1824). For Stendhal, music, especially Italian opera, was the purest expression of passion, a source of emotion and energy that he sought to capture in his novels.

Politics and Society

Stendhal experienced and closely observed the political upheavals of his time. He was a fervent Bonapartist and served in the army of Napoleon Bonaparte, a figure who fascinated him. Napoleon’s energy and ambition are qualities he often attributed to his own heroes. However, he also criticized the emperor’s despotism.

Later, as a diplomat, he moved in political and social circles, particularly in Paris and Rome . His observations of the morals, corruption, and intrigues of high society informed his novels, making him a chronicler of his time.

Plastic arts

Stendhal had a passion for Italian Renaissance art. It was while visiting the churches of Florence that he experienced Stendhal syndrome, an intense physical and emotional reaction. He was particularly struck by the works of Michelangelo and Giotto, whom he admired for their strength and ability to express human passion. These artists fueled his reflection on beauty and the ability of art to touch the soul .

Stendhal, whose real name was Marie-Henri Beyle, had significant relationships with many non-fiction figures of his time, whether from the worlds of art, ideas, or politics. These interactions profoundly influenced his worldview and his work.

The world of ideas and sciences

Stendhal was an inquisitive mind, interested in emerging psychology, science, and philosophy . He corresponded with the philosopher and economist Destutt de Tracy. He was also an avid reader of philosophers such as Condillac and Helvétius, whose theories on sensations and ideas shaped his psychology of character, which focused on the pursuit of happiness and the analysis of passions.

The music

Music played a central role in Stendhal’s life. He met and admired the composer Gioachino Rossini, to whom he wrote a laudatory biography, Life of Rossini (1824). For Stendhal, music, especially Italian opera, was the purest expression of passion, a source of emotion and energy that he sought to capture in his novels.

Politics and Society

Stendhal experienced and closely observed the political upheavals of his time. He was a fervent Bonapartist and served in the army of Napoleon Bonaparte, a figure who fascinated him. Napoleon’s energy and ambition are qualities he often attributed to his own heroes. However, he also criticized the emperor’s despotism.

Later, as a diplomat, he moved in political and social circles, particularly in Paris and Rome . His observations of the morals, corruption, and intrigues of high society informed his novels, making him a chronicler of his time.

Plastic arts

Stendhal had a passion for Italian Renaissance art. It was while visiting the churches of Florence that he experienced Stendhal syndrome, an intense physical and emotional reaction. He was particularly struck by the works of Michelangelo and Giotto, whom he admired for their strength and ability to express human passion. These artists fueled his reflection on beauty and the ability of art to touch the soul .

Similar Novelists

To situate Stendhal, he must be considered as a bridge between Romanticism and Realism. Thus, novelists similar to him can be classified into two categories: those who share his themes and those who were influenced by his style and method .

Realist novelists (contemporaries or successors)

Honoré de Balzac: Balzac is often cited in parallel with Stendhal. Although they had very different styles ( Balzac is more prolific and descriptive), they shared the same project : to depict the society of their time. Balzac also recognized Stendhal’s genius, admiring his ability to analyze human passions.

Gustave Flaubert: Flaubert, like Stendhal, is a master of observation and psychological analysis. Their novels, notably Madame Bovary for Flaubert and The Red and the Black for Stendhal, are scathing critiques of the bourgeoisie. Both authors share a precise style and a quest for accuracy.

Guy de Maupassant: A disciple of Flaubert, Maupassant has a sober and concise style, like Stendhal. His short stories and novels, such as Bel-Ami, explore ambition and social corruption, quintessential Stendhalian themes .

Authors who were influenced by Stendhal

Marcel Proust: Proust was a great admirer of Stendhal. He praised his style and his ability to capture moments of psychological truth . The analysis of feelings and memory in In Search of Lost Time owes much to Stendhal’s method.

Friedrich Nietzsche: The German philosopher admired Stendhal for his free spirit and his keen psychology. Nietzsche considered Stendhal a model of a “19th-century psychologist , ” capable of seeing beyond appearances and conventions.

Raymond Guérin : Less well-known, this 20th-century author explicitly claimed Stendhal’s legacy. He spoke of the “psychology of the scalpel” to describe the meticulous method of analysis he shared with him.

In short, while Balzac and Flaubert were companions in their exploration of realism, Stendhal’s influence extended far beyond his time, touching thinkers and writers with his psychological depth and innovative style.

Novels

Stendhal wrote several novels, some of which are major works of French literature , while others remained unfinished and were published posthumously .

Major novels

Armance (1827): His first novel, it explores the theme of love in Parisian high society . It is a psychological novel that depicts an impossible love.

famous novel . It traces the social rise of Julien Sorel, an ambitious young man, in Restoration France. The novel is a scathing critique of the hypocrisy of his time .

The Charterhouse of Parma (1839): Considered a masterpiece, this novel tells the adventures of Fabrice del Dongo, a naive young Italian aristocrat , and explores themes such as love, politics and the quest for happiness.

Unfinished and Posthumous Novels

Lucien Leuwen ( written between 1834 and 1835, published in 1894): This novel is a satire of politics and garrison life in France under the July Monarchy.

Lamiel ( written between 1839 and 1842, published in 1889): This novel, which remained in draft form, follows the story of a young woman who frees herself from social conventions.

The Red and the Black (1830)

Stendhal’s The Red and the Black (1830) is a major novel of 19th-century French literature , considered one of the first novels of the Realist period . It bears the subtitle “Chronicle of the 19th Century ” and is based on a true story, the Antoine Berthet affair.

Plot Summary​​
The novel is divided into two main parts.

Part I: The Province

The story follows Julien Sorel, a young man from a modest background in the small town of Verrières . Intelligent and ambitious, he dreams of military glory in the manner of Napoleon. But, in his time, the only path to social advancement for a man of the people is the priesthood . He therefore decides to study theology .

Julien becomes the tutor of the children of Mr. de Rênal , the mayor of Verrières . He is seduced by Mrs. de Rênal , the mayor’s wife, and their illicit affair begins. This relationship is a crucial part of his emotional and social apprenticeship.

Part II: Paris

After a scandal, Julien was forced to leave Verrières . He entered the seminary of Besançon .

Main themes​

Ambition and the quest for social advancement: Julien Sorel is the perfect example of the Stendhalian hero: a gifted individual who comes up against the barriers of society . His ambition is both his driving force and his downfall.

Social criticism: Stendhal makes a harsh criticism of Restoration society, denouncing the hypocrisy of the bourgeoisie and the vanity of the nobility.

The Conflict Between Love and Vanity: Julien’s romantic relationships are always mixed with his ambition . He never knows if his feelings are sincere or if they are the fruit of his desire to elevate himself.

The title “The Red and the Black”: Red symbolizes blood, the army, passions (the Revolution), while black symbolizes the ecclesiastical habit, religion, but also mourning and death. The title evokes the career choice that was open to Julien and the contrast in his life.

The heritage

The Red and the Black is considered a founding novel of realism for its in-depth psychological analysis and incisive social criticism. It has influenced many writers and is still studied for its modernity and the complexity of its main character.

The Charterhouse of Parma (1839)

The Charterhouse of Parma is a novel by Stendhal published in 1839. The story takes place in Italy in the post-Napoleonic era and tells the adventures of the young aristocrat Fabrice del Dongo, as well as the political intrigues of the court of Parma.

Plot Summary​​

The novel begins in 1796 with the entry of Napoleon’s army into Italy, which brings a breath of freedom to the country. Fabrice del Dongo, born of an affair between his mother and a French officer , grows up believing that he is the latter’s son. As a teenager, he leaves for France to join Napoleon and takes part in the Battle of Waterloo. Stendhal depicts the confusion and chaos of war, far from the glorious image Fabrice had of it.

Back in Italy, Fabrizio must flee his family. His aunt, the beautiful and intelligent Duchess Sanseverina, and her lover, Count Mosca, help him settle at the court of Parma. The Duchess is a central figure, wielding political intrigue for the good of her nephew. Fabrizio, who is destined for the priesthood , finds himself drawn into romantic adventures and power struggles. He is imprisoned in the citadel of Parma after killing an actor in a duel. It is there that he meets Clélia Conti, the daughter of the prison governor. A passion grows between them, complicated by their respective situations.

Main themes​

Passion versus Hypocrisy: The novel contrasts the sincere and deep passions of characters like Fabrice and the Duchess with the vanity and political intrigues of the court.

Stendhalian happiness: For Stendhal, happiness is not found in glory or power, but in love and authenticity of feelings.

Political criticism: Stendhal denounces the corruption and despotism of the small Italian courts of the time. Politics there is a matter of plots, egos and calculations, far from the ideals of freedom .

The novel is famous for its direct and fast-paced writing, and for its keen psychological analysis. Although it was criticized upon its release, it was acclaimed by writers such as Balzac, who called it a masterpiece .

Works outside the novels

Essays and Treatises

On Love (1822): A psychological essay that explores the nature of love, from its origins to its various forms. In it, Stendhal sets out his famous theory of crystallization , a process by which the beloved is sublimated and endowed with perfect qualities in the mind of the lover.

French theatre , which he considers outdated, with Shakespeare’s theatre, which he sees as a model of freedom and modernity .

History of Painting in Italy (1817): An exploration of the history of Italian art, reflecting his love for the country and its culture.

Biographies

Life of Rossini (1824): A biography of the composer Gioachino Rossini, one of his favorites. The work demonstrates Stendhal’s admiration for Italian music and artistic geniuses.

Life of Napoleon ( written in 1817-1818, published in 1929): A biography of the leader he so admired . Stendhal writes of Napoleon’s genius and ambition, qualities he often attributed to his own fictional heroes.

Autobiographical works

Life of Henry Brulard ( written in 1835-1836, published in 1890): An unfinished and very personal autobiography , in which Stendhal recalls his childhood in Grenoble, his family and his early years .

Memories of Egotism (written in 1832, published in 1892): Another autobiographical work in which he explores his “self” with a lucidity and frankness rare for his time.

Episodes and anecdotes

The life of Stendhal, or Marie-Henri Beyle, is rich in episodes and anecdotes which reflect his complex character : at once romantic, observant and ironic.

The theory of “crystallization”

One of Stendhal’s most famous ideas is not taken from a novel, but from his essay On Love (1822). In it, he develops the theory of “crystallization.” He recounts an anecdote about visiting the salt mines of Salzburg. He observed that a simple wooden branch left in the mines emerged covered in sparkling salt crystals . In the same way , he said, the lover, blinded by passion, “decorates” the beloved with every imaginable perfection, even if he possesses none. For Stendhal, crystallization is a natural and illusory process that transforms the object of our love.

The “Civil Code” and the writing style

Stendhal was famous for his quest for a simple and direct writing style, in contrast to the long sentences and flourishes of Romanticism. He told his friends that before starting to write, he read a few pages of Napoleon’s Civil Code. This often-quoted anecdote symbolizes his desire to find a clear, concise, and precise style of writing, inspired by the rigor of the law. He wanted his sentences to be as effective and clear as articles of law.

Stendhal syndrome

The most famous episode in his life gave its name to a psychological phenomenon . In 1817, during a trip to Florence, Stendhal visited the Basilica of Santa Croce. While contemplating Giotto’s frescoes and the tombs of Michelangelo and Machiavelli, he was suddenly overcome with emotion. He described this experience as a sensation of dizziness and fainting, a physical and psychological reaction to excessive beauty. This anecdote was popularized by the Italian psychiatrist Graziella Magherini, who studied similar cases among tourists in Florence, thus giving a name to this syndrome.

The modesty of his tomb

One final anecdote , full of irony, concerns his tomb. Stendhal himself wrote the epitaph on his tomb in the Montparnasse Cemetery in Paris. It is written in Italian and reads: “Arrigo Beyle, Milanese. Scrisse, am ò , visse.” Which means “Henri Beyle, Milanese. He wrote, he loved, he lived.” It is a sober and modest epitaph for a man whose life was so rich, and it perfectly sums up his philosophy: to write, to love, and to live fully.

(This article was generated by Gemini. And it’s just a reference document for discovering poet and poetries you don’t know yet.)

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Notes on Gustave Flaubert and His Works

Overview

19th-century French literature , recognized as one of the fathers of realism. Born in Rouen in 1821, he spent most of his life devoted entirely to his art , working on his works with extreme rigor and meticulousness .

A master of style

Flaubert is famous for his tireless search for the right word. He polished his sentences, sometimes for days, to achieve stylistic perfection and sonic harmony. This relentless work resulted in prose masterpieces characterized by impersonal narration and rigorous objectivity. He believed that the artist should step back from his work to let reality itself speak , an evolutionary idea for the time.

His major works

His most famous novel , Madame Bovary (1857), was a turning point in literature. The story of Emma Bovary, a woman bored with her provincial life and seeking escape in adultery , shocked contemporary society . Flaubert was prosecuted for outrage against public decency, but was acquitted , making his book even more popular.

Other important works by Flaubert include:

Salammbô (1862): a historical and exotic novel set in ancient Carthage.

Sentimental Education (1869): a novel that traces the history of a disillusioned generation through the loves and life of Frédéric Moreau .

the most famous of which is A Simple Heart, the story of the devoted servant Felicité .

A lasting impact

Flaubert’s influence was immense . He laid the foundations of the modern novel by moving away from Romanticism and emphasizing discipline, careful observation, and stylistic refinement. His concern for precision and detachment inspired many writers, from Maupassant to Proust and many others, making him a key figure in world literature.

History

Gustave Flaubert was born in 1821 in Rouen, Normandy, into a wealthy family. The son of a chief surgeon, he grew up in an environment that valued science and observation, an influence that would profoundly influence his style. From an early age , he developed a passion for literature and moved away from the law studies he had begun in Paris, which he abandoned after a nervous breakdown in 1844.

Having become a rentier following the death of his father , Flaubert retired to his estate in Croisset, near Rouen , where he led a reclusive life dedicated to his art. His life was marked by an obsessive search for stylistic perfection, known as “gueuloir” (the act of shouting out his sentences to test their sound). His goal was to achieve the “right word” and to erase the author’s presence to let the story speak for itself .

A realistic and controversial writer

His life as a writer is above all a story of hard and solitary work. Work on his masterpiece, Madame Bovary (1857), took him nearly five years. This novel, which depicts the life of a provincial woman stifled by boredom and conformity, caused a scandal upon its publication. Flaubert was prosecuted for outrage against public decency, but his acquittal propelled him to the forefront of the literary scene .

After this success , Flaubert continued to perfect his style through works as diverse as the historical and poetic novel Salammbô ( 1862), the autobiographical and disillusioned L’ Éducation sentimentale (1869) and the collection of short stories Trois contes (1877), which includes the very moving ” Un cœur simple”.

A difficult end of life and an immense legacy

Despite this recognition, the end of his life was marred by financial difficulties and illness. He devoted himself to writing his final novel, Bouvard et Pécuchet, a scathing critique of human stupidity , which he left unfinished at his death in 1880.

Flaubert left a colossal literary legacy , not only through his works, but also through his correspondence, which is a valuable source on his conception of art and his life. He is considered a precursor of the modern novel and a master of realism, influencing a whole generation of writers, including Maupassant.

Timeline

This is a timeline of the life and works of Gustave Flaubert, one of the greatest writers of the 19th century , known for his demanding style and his major role in the development of realism .

Beginnings and training (1821-1846)

12, 1821: Birth of Gustave Flaubert in Rouen, Normandy.

1840: He obtained his baccalaureate and began studying law in Paris, but quickly lost interest .

January 1844: A nervous breakdown forces him to abandon his studies. He returns to his family in Croisset, where he will devote himself entirely to writing for the rest of his life.

January 15, 1846: Death of his father . Two months later, his sister Caroline also died in childbirth. This profound grief left a lasting mark on him.

maturity and masterpieces (1849-1877)

1849-1851: Flaubert travels to the Orient (Egypt, Palestine, Türkiye) with his friend Maxime Du Camp, an experience that will nourish his imagination.

1851-1856: He worked intensively on Madame Bovary. It was a meticulous creative process, in which he tirelessly searched for the right word.

1857: Publication of Madame Bovary. The work caused a scandal and Flaubert was taken to court for “contempt of public and religious morality.” He was eventually acquitted .

1862: Publication of Salammbô , an exotic historical novel which meets with great success .

1869: Publication of Sentimental Education, which depicts the disillusionment of a generation . The novel was a commercial and critical failure, but is now considered one of his major works.

1877: Publication of Three Tales, a collection of short stories which notably includes “A Simple Heart”.

End of life and legacy (1875-1880)

1875: Flaubert experiences significant financial difficulties following the ruin of his niece’s husband .

1877-1880: He works on his last novel, Bouvard et Pécuchet, a satire on the stupidity and absurdity of knowledge.

May 8, 1880: Flaubert dies in Croisset of a cerebral hemorrhage , leaving Bouvard and Pécuchet unfinished . His work will be published posthumously .

Characteristics of Novels

Gustave Flaubert’s novels are distinguished by a set of characteristics that make them major works of realism and precursors of the modern novel. ✍ ️ His texts are the fruit of hard work, and he leaves nothing to chance.

Style and method

The quest for the “right word”: Flaubert is famous for his obsessive search for the perfect expression. He would reread his sentences aloud in his “gueuloir” to check their musicality and accuracy, which gave his prose great formal perfection.

Impersonality: Flaubert completely erases himself from his works. He refuses to intervene as a narrator to give his opinion or moralize. He lets the facts and characters speak for themselves , which creates an impression of objectivity and detachment. This principle was a true revolution for the time.

Realism and Observation: For Flaubert, the novel must depict reality with scientific accuracy. He researches extensively and incorporates precise details and meticulous descriptions to immerse the reader in the social and historical framework of his stories .

Themes and characters

Criticism of Romanticism and Human Stupidity : Although he himself was influenced by Romanticism , Flaubert criticizes its illusions and idealism. His characters, such as Emma Bovary, are often overwhelmed by the triviality of everyday life, as reality never matches their romantic dreams . Flaubert also shows great irony towards the stupidity and mediocrity of the bourgeoisie and society .

Boredom and Pessimism: Flaubert’s novels, particularly Madame Bovary and Sentimental Education, are imbued with a deep sense of weariness and boredom. His characters are often disenchanted and unable to find meaning in their lives.

The failure of ambitions: Its protagonists, whether young bourgeois (Fréd éric Moreau) or copyists (Bouvard and Pécuchet), are driven by great aspirations which invariably clash with the banality of the real world, leading to failure and disillusionment .

Style(s), genre(s), theme ( s) and technique(s)

Gustave Flaubert’s novels are founding works of 19th-century realism , characterized by a methodical approach and an extremely polished style .

Style and method

His style is defined by an obsessive search for the “right word” and meticulous attention to the musicality of the sentence. Flaubert uses a writing technique based on impersonality , where the narrator steps aside to let the events and characters speak for themselves . He uses free indirect speech to make his characters’ thoughts heard while maintaining a narrative distance. His method is based on exhaustive documentation and rigorous observation of reality .

Movements and eras

Flaubert is the leader of realism, a literary and artistic movement that seeks to represent reality in an objective and detailed manner . His work is also a transition between Romanticism, which he criticizes while being imbued with it , and Naturalism, of which he is a precursor. His novels belong to the 19th century , a time of great social change and disillusionment .

Genres and forms

Flaubert’s main genre is the novel. He explored different forms of this genre:

, Sentimental Education), which depicts the life and customs of a society .

The historical novel (Salammb ô).

The short story (Three tales).

The philosophical and satirical novel (Bouvard and Pé cuchet).

Themes and subjects

The major themes of his novels are:

Disenchantment and disillusionment, often linked to the failure of ambitions and dreams .

Criticism of the bourgeoisie and its stupidity .

The conflict between dream and reality , often symbolized by the boredom and triviality of everyday life.

Fate and social determinism, which crush the characters.

The mediocrity of the human condition .

Impacts & Influences

Gustave Flaubert is a pivotal figure in modern literature, whose impact extends far beyond his own time. His influence is felt both by writers of his time and by subsequent generations , profoundly changing the way the art of the novel is conceived.

Impacts on realism and French literature

Flaubert was one of the main architects of realism. 📚 His insistence on objectivity, impersonality, and documentation redefined the standards of novel writing. Far from Romanticism and its passionate outbursts, he showed how the most banal everyday life could become the subject of great art.

The “right word” and stylistic perfection: Flaubert’s obsessive quest for the perfect sentence elevated style to a major issue. He taught writers that art lies not only in the subject, but also in the form.

Impersonality: By removing himself from the narrative, Flaubert gave the novel a neutrality that has influenced many authors. This detachment allows the reader to judge for himself , without the moral interference of the author.

Heirs and global influences

‘s influence extends far beyond French borders .

Naturalism: Émile Zola, although he had his own theories , continued along the path of scientific realism opened by Flaubert, applying even more rigorous observation methods to the description of social environments.

Anglo-Saxon writers: The American writer Henry James admired Flaubert’s work, considering him a “writer for writers.” His novels, focused on psychology and the subtleties of social relationships, owe much to Flaubertian precision . Other figures such as Joseph Conrad were influenced by his style.

Modernity: Later, Flaubert influenced writers like Marcel Proust, who praised his mastery of the phrase. Twentieth- century authors , from Vladimir Nabokov to Michel Butor (for the Nouveau Roman), entered into a dialogue with his work, either imitating it or distancing themselves from it.

Flaubert is therefore an essential milestone in literature, because he transformed the novel into a demanding and self-conscious art form .

Relationships with novelists

Gustave Flaubert maintained complex and significant relationships with several writers of his time, mainly through extensive correspondence and regular meetings in Parisian salons. These relationships, often based on mutual respect despite aesthetic differences, played a crucial role in the literary landscape of the 19th century .

Guy de Maupassant

The relationship with Guy de Maupassant is undoubtedly the most famous and the most paternal. 👨 ‍ 🏫 Flaubert was a friend of Maupassant’s family and took the young writer under his wing, guiding and advising him rigorously . In particular, he instilled in him his fundamental principle: work and discipline. Flaubert encouraged Maupassant to write and was the first to recognize his talent after the publication of Boule de Suif, which he called a masterpiece . Flaubert’s death in 1880 deeply affected Maupassant .

George Sand

George Sand and Flaubert maintained a deep and fascinating literary and epistolary friendship, despite diametrically opposed visions of the world and art . 💌 George Sand, a romantic and idealist, believed in the social utility of art and the need to put one’s heart into one’s works. Flaubert, a realist and pessimist, defended art for art’s sake and the absolute impersonality of the artist. Their correspondence reveals a passionate exchange , in which George Sand attempts to bring Flaubert back towards more humanity, while he remains faithful to his demand for stylistic detachment.

Émile Zola

The relationship between Flaubert and Émile Zola began in 1869 and lasted until Flaubert ‘s death. Zola admired Flaubert, whom he considered his master . Flaubert, although he was sometimes annoyed by Zola ‘s theories of naturalism, recognized his immense talent. The two men exchanged views on each other’s works, and Flaubert praised Zola’s strength and observation. Zola, for his part , attended Flaubert ‘s literary Sundays in Paris and often sought his approval, recognizing him as a precursor of his own movement.

The Goncourt brothers

Flaubert maintained a friendship with the brothers Edmond and Jules de Goncourt, important figures of realism. Flaubert met with them regularly and shared discussions on literature and art. Their famous Journal offers a valuable account of Flaubert and his working method, describing in detail his “gueuloir” and his search for the right word. Although Flaubert may have been critical of their style, which he sometimes found too busy, he respected their observational work and their role in modernizing writing .

Relationships

Gustave Flaubert maintained important relationships with figures who were not exclusively novelists, shaping his thinking and work. These relationships were often by letter or took place in the context of literary encounters.

Relationships with poets

Flaubert had a complex relationship with the poets of his time. ✍ ️ Although he focused on prose, poetry occupied an important place in his life. His most notable relationship was with the poet Louise Colet. Their tumultuous love is best known through their abundant correspondence. In these letters, Flaubert developed his theories on art, style, and impersonality , defending an aesthetic that opposed the lyrical exaltation of Romanticism, of which Colet was a representative .

Another key figure was the poet Louis Bouilhet. Bouilhet was his closest friend and “literary conscience.” He often reread Flaubert’s manuscripts, especially Madame Bovary, advising and critiquing him. Flaubert considered him “half of his brain,” and their collaboration was essential in Flaubert’s creative process.

Relations with other personalities from the literary world

Flaubert interacted with philosophical figures and critics. He was notably a friend of the critic and historian Hippolyte Taine. Flaubert read Taine’s works, as evidenced by the file of notes he left on works by Spinoza and Hegel, and was interested in his scientific approach to literature, which may have reinforced his own vision of realism. He was also in contact with playwrights, such as Victor Hugo, and himself attempted to venture into the theatrical genre, notably with The Candidate (1874), a critical and commercial failure.

Flaubert maintained a correspondence with his niece , Caroline Commanville. These letters, often full of advice and remarks on his work, offer valuable insight into his personal reflections on art, life, and society , reinforcing the idea that for Flaubert, literature was a solitary and absolute passion that drew its nourishment from exchanges with a very small circle of intimates.

Similar Novelists

In general , novelists similar to Gustave Flaubert are those who share his commitment to realism, stylistic perfection, and a meticulous observation of detail. Here are some important names:

From the same century as Flaubert

Guy de Maupassant: Maupassant was a direct disciple of Flaubert. He inherited his taste for impersonality, brevity of sentence and clinical description of morals and social circles. His realism is often darker and more pessimistic than Flaubert’s .

Honoré de Balzac: Balzac is considered the father of French realism . Although his style is less refined than Flaubert’s, he shares with him a titanic ambition to exhaustively depict the society of his time. Flaubert admired Balzac but criticized his style, which he sometimes considered sloppy .

Émile Zola: Zola is the leader of naturalism, a literary movement that pushes realism even further by adding a scientific and deterministic dimension . Zola considered Flaubert a precursor and shared his love of documentation and detailed description .

Beyond France​

Henry James (United States): Henry James was a great admirer of Flaubert. He shared his concern for composition, psychological finesse, and a technical approach to writing. His prose, though different, is of great precision and complexity, seeking to probe the consciousness of his characters.

Anton Chekhov (Russia): Although he is better known for his plays , Chekhov’s short stories are an example of realism and impersonality . He depicts the ordinary lives of his characters with a gaze that is both detached and deeply empathetic.

Leo Tolstoy (Russia): Like Flaubert, Tolstoy is a master of describing the mores of his time. His novel Anna Karenina is often compared to Madame Bovary for its exploration of the themes of adultery and boredom in high society .

These novelists are examples that illustrate Flaubert’s legacy: a legacy of style, method, and a demanding vision of the novel as an art form in its own right .

Novels

Gustave Flaubert is famous for several novels that are considered masterpieces of French literature and founding texts of realism. Here are the best known:

Madame Bovary (1857): This is his most famous novel and a major work of world literature. It tells the story of Emma Bovary, a woman bored with her provincial life and seeking escape in adultery and dreams of luxury , until her tragic downfall. The novel caused a scandal upon its publication, but is now admired for its impeccable style and psychological and social description.

Salammbô (1862): This novel is a striking contrast to the realism of Madame Bovary. It is a historical novel set in ancient Carthage, just after the First Punic War. Flaubert uses lyrical prose and exotic descriptions, the result of a colossal amount of research.

Sentimental Education (1869): This novel, often considered the male counterpart to Madame Bovary, traces the life of Frédéric Moreau from 1840 to 1851. It is a work that depicts the disillusionment of a generation through the failed loves and ambitions of its protagonist. Although it was a commercial failure upon its release, it is now seen as a masterpiece .

Three Tales (1877): This collection of three short stories is an example of Flaubert’s perfection in prose. It includes three very different stories : “A Simple Heart” (the story of a devoted servant ), “The Legend of Saint Julian the Hospitaller” (a medieval legend ), and “Herodias” (a version of the story of the beheading of John the Baptist).

Bouvard and Pécuchet (posthumous, 1881): This unfinished novel is a satire on human stupidity and encyclopedic knowledge. It follows two copyists who, after inheriting a fortune , decide to embark on the study of all the sciences and arts, systematically failing in their endeavors.

Madame Bovary (1857)

The Story of Emma Bovary

famous novel , published in 1857. It tells the story of Emma Bovary, a young woman from the Normandy countryside, raised in a convent and passionate about romantic romance novels. She is deeply bored with her life, which does not correspond to her aspirations and dreams . To escape this dreary reality , she marries Charles Bovary, an honest but mediocre and unambitious country doctor .

After their marriage, the couple moved to Yonville, a small provincial town. Emma, even more disillusioned by married life and the boredom of the rural bourgeoisie, sought escape. She embarked on adulterous affairs , first with a wealthy landowner, Rodolphe Boulanger, and then with a shy notary’s clerk, Léon Dupuis.

These relationships, which were supposed to offer her the happiness and passion she idealizes, end in bitter failure. Rodolphe abandons her, and Léon cannot meet her desires for luxury and a high society life. To maintain the lifestyle she dreams of having, Emma goes into heavy debt with a deceitful merchant, Lheureux.

Emma’s Fall

Emma sinks deeper into debt and despair. Unable to meet repayments, she faces seizure of her property. Rejected by all her lovers and so-called friends, she finds herself alone and with no way out. To escape humiliation and ruin , she commits suicide by swallowing arsenic.

Why is the novel so important?

Realism: Flaubert depicted provincial life with unprecedented precision and attention to detail . He refused to glorify his characters and showed the stark, banal reality of their existence .

Style: The novel is a lesson in literary style. Flaubert worked tirelessly to find the “right word” and used free indirect speech to express his characters’ thoughts without ever judging them.

The scandal: Upon its publication, the novel was deemed immoral and led to Flaubert being put on trial for “contempt of public and religious morality.” His acquittal made him a major figure in French literature .

Sentimental Education (1869)

Sentimental Education is a novel by Gustave Flaubert, published in 1869. Often considered the male counterpart to Madame Bovary, it is a fresco of French youth from 1840 to 1851, and the story of failure and disillusionment .

A young man and his disillusionment

Gustave Flaubert’s Sentimental Education follows the life of Frédéric Moreau , an ambitious and naive young man who arrives in Paris in 1840 to pursue his law studies. He quickly becomes swept away by social events and platonic love affairs, neglecting his professional ambitions.

Frédéric meets and falls madly in love with Marie Arnoux, the wife of an art dealer. This passion is the driving force of the plot. It renders him passive, pushing him to fantasize about an impossible relationship rather than take action to make his dreams come true .

At the same time , the novel paints a detailed portrait of French society at the time . Frédéric frequented artistic and political circles where he met a variety of characters: the corrupt banker Dambreuse, the desperate artist Pellerin , the political activist Deslauriers, and many others. These encounters reflect the social and political upheavals of the period, notably the Revolution of 1848.

The loves of Frédéric

Frédéric is unable to commit to a lasting relationship; his love life is a series of failures and failed loves. He has affairs with other women, such as the courtesan Rosanette and the bourgeois Madame Dambreuse, but none can replace his love for Marie Arnoux. These affairs are fleeting and superficial , and they bring him neither happiness nor fulfillment.

Frederick ‘s hopes and dreams gradually crumble . He fails to find his place in society , fails in his ambitions, and his love life is reduced to disappointments . He is the symbol of a lost youth, unable to transform his aspirations into concrete actions . The novel ends on a note of introspection, where we see that Frederick ‘s youthful passions have led him nowhere .

The novel takes place against a backdrop of major political upheavals, including the Revolution of 1848 and the coup d’état of December 2, 1851. Flaubert depicts an entire generation whose political and sentimental hopes and ideals have been shattered. The novel ends on a somber note, where the aging Frédéric recalls with his friend Deslauriers the only time in their youth when they showed any audacity, a simple visit to a brothel.

Why is the novel important?

Novel of failure: Unlike traditional novels, Sentimental Education does not follow the rise of its hero, but rather his fall and inaction. It is a critique of romanticism and its illusions.

Realism: Flaubert depicts the political and artistic life of the time with historical and social accuracy. His style is neutral and impersonal, without any moral judgment.

Boredom: The novel is a meditation on boredom and the emptiness of existence, a central theme in Flaubert’s work. Frédéric is an anti-hero, a passive character who finds no meaning in his life.

Bouvard and Pé Cuchet (posthumous, 1881)

Bouvard and Pécuchet is an unfinished novel by Gustave Flaubert, published posthumously in 1881. It is a ferocious satire on human stupidity and the absurdity of knowledge.

The story of two copyists

The novel begins with a chance encounter between two men, François Bouvard and Juste Pécuchet, who bear a striking resemblance to each other and share the same profession as copyists. They become friends and, after both inheriting a fortune, decide to buy a farm in Normandy to retire from Parisian life.

They settled in Chavignolles, determined to educate themselves and live independently . Their plan was simple: to study all areas of human knowledge and put them into practice.

A quest for knowledge doomed to failure

Bouvard and Pécuchet enthusiastically embarked on a series of experiments and studies in every imaginable field:

Agriculture: They read treatises and manuals on how to cultivate their gardens, but their attempts end in bitter failure.

Medicine and chemistry: they dabble in medicine, concocting remedies that only aggravate the ills of their neighbors.

Politics: They debate politics and religion, but their opinions change with each new book they read.

Science, literature, philosophy, archaeology: they tackle all subjects, but their lack of method and their systematic spirit lead them to confusion and ridicule.

Flaubert left extensive notes for the rest of the novel, where the two men were to return to their first profession as copyists, copying all the documents they found, illustrating the idea that knowledge leads nowhere .

Works outside the novels

Apart from his famous novels , Gustave Flaubert wrote several works of various genres, which complete his literary corpus and reveal other facets of his genius .

Three Tales (1877): This is his most famous collection of short stories , a masterpiece of short prose. It is composed of three stories: “A Simple Heart” (the story of a devoted servant ), “The Legend of Saint Julian the Hospitaller” (a medieval tale of redemption), and “Herodias” (a version of the story of John the Baptist).

The Candidate (1874): This is a play , a comedy that critiques the political mores of the time. Flaubert attempted to achieve success on stage , but the play was a commercial and critical failure .

The Dictionary of Received Ideas ( published posthumously): This is a satirical project that Flaubert worked on throughout his life. It is a collection of bourgeois expressions and clichés, aimed at exposing the stupidity and conformism of the society of his time. This dictionary was intended to be part of the unfinished novel Bouvard and Pécuchet .

The Temptation of Saint Anthony (three versions, 1849, 1856, 1874): This is a philosophical and poetic drama that explores the themes of temptation and holiness. Flaubert deploys a rich and imaginative style , inspired by his readings of the Fathers of the Church and philosophers.

Correspondence: Flaubert left behind a wealth of high-quality correspondence, which is now an essential part of his oeuvre. These letters to friends such as George Sand, Guy de Maupassant, and Louise Colet are a valuable testimony to his creative process, his aesthetic ideas , and his worldview.

Episodes and anecdotes

Gustave Flaubert, despite his life as a recluse in Croisset, was the protagonist of several significant episodes and anecdotes that shed light on his personality, his writing process and his place in the literary world.

The Trial of Madame Bovary

Perhaps the most famous episode in Flaubert’s life was his trial for outrage against public morality and religion in 1857, following the publication of Madame Bovary. Imperial prosecutor Ernest Pinard criticized the novel for its “vulgar realism” and immorality . Flaubert was defended by lawyer Marie-Antoine-Jules Sénard. The trial lasted five days and ended in his acquittal, an outcome that not only saved his career but also made him a key figure in French literature . The trial paradoxically contributed to the novel’s success , drawing public attention to a work perceived as scandalous.

The “shouter” and the quest for the “right word”

For Flaubert, writing was a true craft. He is famous for his “gueuloir,” a method he used to test the musicality and rhythm of his sentences. He reread his texts aloud , almost shouting them, to ensure that each word was in its place and that the sentence had perfect harmony. This method symbolizes his obsessive quest for the “right word” and his conviction that the art of prose was as rigorous as poetry. It was at Croisset, in the solitude of his home, that he devoted himself to this exercise with unwavering rigor.

Flaubert’s statue in Rouen

An anecdote tells that at the inauguration of Flaubert’s statue in Rouen in 1907, his friend and disciple Guy de Maupassant refused to attend. Maupassant, who had a complex relationship of admiration and respect for his master , is said to have declared that he could not bear the thought of seeing Flaubert “transformed into bronze.” This reaction testifies to the deep affection and loyalty Maupassant felt for Flaubert, a bond so strong that he could not reduce him to a mere monument.

The Authors ‘ Dinner and Taine’s Joke

At a dinner party with the critic Hippolyte Taine, Flaubert was the butt of a joke. In the middle of a conversation, Taine asked him: “Say, Flaubert, do you know that oysters are the dumbest animals in the world?” Flaubert, always serious, is said to have replied: “No, I don’t have that information.” Taine then reportedly smiled broadly and added: “Well, now you’ve got it !” This anecdote, perhaps apocryphal , highlights Flaubert’s austere and often dour character , who was more at ease in the world of ideas than in that of social banter.

(This article was generated by Gemini. And it’s just a reference document for discovering poet and poetries you don’t know yet.)

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